Ptlls Ass 1 Essay

Understanding your own job and obligations in Lifelong Learning * Explain your job inside deep rooted learning and sum up key parts of enactment, administrative necessities and codes of work on, identifying with you and your job. While considering the job of a Lifelong Learning educator a decent spot to begin is the instructing and learning cycle. There are five phases to the educating and learning cycle: recognizing needs; arranging getting the hang of; encouraging picking up; surveying learning; and assessing. My job as an educator incorporates distinguishing needs, which is done through an underlying appraisal. The run of the mill approach to distinguish needs as an assessor is to request that the student round out a necessities appraisal structure toward the beginning of the course. The structure could incorporate whatever eventual applicable to the educator to guarantee that there are no obstructions to learning and that the student has equivalent access to learning. For instance, data on the learner’s past instructive accomplishments, current learning level, useful aptitudes tests, any inabilities, or a particular needs, (for example, accessibility) ought to be accumulated during the distinguishing needs stage. From the underlying evaluation, the instructor can distinguish every students needs and guarantee that these are joined into the arranging phase of the cycle. The arranging stage incorporates guaranteeing the wellbeing and security of students via doing a hazard evaluation and finishing suitable plans of work and exercises plans, including any remittances for student needs distinguished in the underlying appraisal. Exercise plans should likewise incorporate points and targets and exercises and appraisals that will guarantee these are met. Having sound plans set up guarantee that the instructor is decidedly ready with the entirety of the fundamental hardware and assets required to address student issues. A decent educator will persistently come back to their arrangement, altering it to address the issues of students as they progress through the course. With a careful arrangement, encouraging learning will be an a lot simpler assignment for the instructor. It’s the teacher’s job to guarantee that they treat every student similarly and decently. The educator should likewise guarantee that students treat each other withâ respect †ice breakers and standard procedures help to address and challenge any wrong conduct. A decent instructor will encourage getting the hang of utilizing an assortment of approaches and assets to meet the arranged points and targets and student needs. The educator ought to likewise install utilitarian abilities in the exercise. A crucial job of the educator is to survey in the ca se of learning has occurred. This ought to be done toward the finish of the course (summative) and intermittently all through each stage or exercise (developmental). The educator utilizes appraisal to watch that the arranged points and targets have been met. Evaluation exercises can incorporate perception, assignments, question and answer, and witness declaration. On the off chance that learning has not occurred, the educator must return to the target either separately or as a gathering. It’s a smart thought to have ‘plan b’ exercises arranged to attempt an alternate methodology, just in the event that learning doesn’t occur the first run through around. At the point when the course is finished, it’s the teacher’s job to pick up input from the students so as to think about and assess their showing strategies, approaches, and assets. The instructor should make changes and enhancements where important. Another significant part of the teacher’s job is guaranteeing that they cling to administrative necessities (law) and any codes of training that may have been set by a granting body or their boss. The key bits of enactment and codes of training that apply to my job include: * Health and Safety at Work Act (1974) †hazard appraisal * The Data Protection Act (2003) †safe stockpiling and utilization of information to shield student from any security penetrates * Every Child Matters (ECM) †exercise plans ought to demonstrate openings where the five results can be met * The Human Right Act (1998) †need to think about issues of balance, decent variety, and incorporation * Safeguarding †have an obligation to report any activity that could make genuine damage a student or someone else * Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) (1995) †need to think about issues of uniformity. Granting body and boss codes of training, arrangements, and methodology * Explain how you would recognize and address the issues of your students while advancing fairness and esteeming decent variety inside your job I would distinguish the necessities of my students by utilizing an underlying evaluation. I would consider any necessities recognized in the underlying evaluation when arranging figuring out how to incorporate a scope of exercises to meet contrasting levels,â a scope of approaches and assets to meet distinctive learning styles, and mulling over any student inabilities or expected difficulties. So as to advance consideration in the study hall I would guarantee that I treat all students similarly by not preferring students or distinguishing any handicaps or secured attributes before different students. I would esteem decent variety by drawing on each leaner’s encounters to add to rich and fluctuated bunch conversations. For instance, a speedy starting appraisal to c heck whether any students have earlier information will empower me to attract on their encounters to support their friends. 2. Understanding connections between instructors/mentors and different experts in Lifelong Learning. Clarify the limits between the showing job and other expert jobs and sum up your own duties according to different experts The educator must comprehend where their job (in situations where they are not able to help the student), their own impediments, and when to allude a student to another certified proficient. Comparable to different experts, it is my duty to realize who to allude the student to or where I can discover suitable data for the student, I should watch student secrecy consistently and just actually allude the student to different experts designated under codes of training (else I should guide the student to the wellspring of help), I have an obligation to report defending issues to the police or another certified proficient, and I should watch information security enactment consistently while alluding students. I additionally need to coordinate and discuss adequately with different experts to guarantee that the learner’s needs are met. * Describe the purposes of referral you may use to meet the learner’s needs Support instructors inside the foundation †numerous universities have bolster educators who might have the option to help students with dyslexia or with language gives that are making boundaries to learning. I would have the option to straightforwardly allude the student to a help educator in the event that I felt that it would help learning. Residents Advice Bureau †students regularly experience hindrances to learning and inspiration on the off chance that they have lawful or money related worries in their own life, which should be survived if learning is to occur. The Citizens Advice Bureau offers free legitimate exhortation on money related and different issues. I would not have the option to straightforwardly allude the student to the Citizens Advice Bureau, yet it is my obligation to hold contact data or know where it tends to be looked for. Childcare suppliers †once more, a student with childcare issues may encounter obstructions to learning. I would not straightforwardly allude the student to a childcare supplier (except if they were inside a school or instructive establishment) however I have a duty to exhort the student on where they can discover access to kid care exhortation and direction. 3. Understanding own obligation regarding keeping up a protected and strong learning condition. Clarify how you are liable for keeping up a protected and strong learning condition inside your job and ways that you would advance proper conduct and regard for others To give a safe steady condition, the educator must guarantee that the learners’ needs are met in accordance with Maslow’s progression of necessities. The instructor must guarantee that they can meet the learners’ fundamental needs of food, water, breaks, and sterile latrine offices. At that point they should address the security of the learning condition via doing a hazard appraisal. Some portion of the arranging stage, the hazard appraisal ought to be finished for each course or exercise in accordance with Health and Safety at work Act (1974) (HASAWA) necessities and persistently surveyed and refreshed (alongside any protected work strategy explanations). The instructor must realize how to finish a powerful hazard appraisal on the off chance that assets or the earth changes after they have finished the underlying danger evaluation. Encouraging icebreakers is a significant piece of the educator job so as to make and keep up a strong domain where students feel a feeling of having a place. Standard procedures are likewise a significant piece of regarding one another and support fitting conduct. At long last, appraisal and input will assist with expanding student certainty and duty regarding figuring out how to assist students with accomplishing their definitive objectives. Word check: 1294 (excluding questions) Bibliography Gravells, A.

Insane Macbeth :: essays research papers

A crazy individual is one that shows stupid acts on account of their poor mental state. In the start of Macbeth, Macbeth is described as a fearless fighter. His fortitude on the front line earned him the titles of Thane of Cawdor and Glamis. The play drives the peruser to accept that Macbeth is rational, yet when he gets forecast from the witches that he will be best, a crazy character rises up out of inside. Macbeth exhibits these qualities when he professes to see a coasting knife and an illusionary phantom and furthermore gets fixated on murdering others, and not being totally human. Macbeth shows the attributes of a crazy character due to his stupid demonstrations and poor mental state when he pictures the skimming blade, addresses an apparition, gets fixated on slaughtering others and with being powerful. At the point when Macbeth starts conversing with a phantom, his madness turns out to be obvious to the peruser. From another of the witches forecasts, Macbeth is compromised by Banquo in light of the fact that his children are to be the best one day also. Macbeth starts to see Banquo’s and offers stupid remarks. He says, â€Å"[Macbeth] The table’s full†¦ [Lennox] Here is a spot saved sir. [Macbeth] Where? [Ross] Gentlemen, rise, his Highness isn't well.† (3:4:47-49,53) In this statement Macbeth exhibits his madness since he imagines that the table is full and doesn't understand that the apparition he sees is undetectable to the next rational individuals in the room. The others notice that Macbeth is crazy too in light of the fact that Ross even recommends that he isn't well. Macbeth likewise seems, by all accounts, to be crazy when he attempts to converse with the apparition. Macbeth says â€Å"[To the ghost] Avaunt! What's more, quit my sight! Let the ear th cover up thee!† (3:4:93-94) Here, Macbeth is conversing with the phantom and <a href=http://www.

The Peculiar Institution of Slavery free essay sample

Servitude in America Northern Colonies Southern Colonies Slave Labor The African Slave Trade - 10 to 11 million africans kidnaped and brought to usa the greater part of those slaves went to south and latin america the individuals who came to america were a minority europeans don’t make subjection and don’t concoct the slave they took advantage of existing slave exchanging africa it previously was separated of the african culture fantasy the white individuals proceed to take them back to claim a person you have to dehumanize them lavery makes bigotry not the reverse way around this prejudice develops in this legend that africa was in reverse and it was the dull landmass. that africans were lesser enlightened creatures. evaluated on the eve that euro took advantage of servitude that africa had as large of a populace as eruope and it was differentiated white collar class, rich, poor, and so on farming in africa was as sophisitcated as it was in paris, rome, and so forth nu merous socities in africa had their own lawful framework and classified laws The Kingdom of Mali Timbuktu and islamic colleges immense considered math and cosmology training and logical advancement was separated of africa Europe and the Slave Trade they traversed the slave exchange through the portuguese Price Henry experienced the african conduits and this was when theyt apped into the slave exchange portugese received slaves as an end-result of equivalent esteemed products iron, firearms, metal pots, and so forth impartial business exchange europeans change subjugation extends it scope and the quantity of slaves bc of new yields sugar in Caribbean, rice, and so on. We will compose a custom paper test on The Peculiar Institution of Slavery or on the other hand any comparative point explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page the catch and transport of slaves from the west expense of africa 3 phases of getting them to the estates First Leg frican operator would have purchased taken traded for african slaves and they would have been walked to the coast leg is from the inland to drift this is the start of brutilization of slaves walk in a solitary line with chain around their neck squander legs strolling upward of 500 miles this is the place first slave uprisings started they couldn’t flee so the ointment defiance came as self destruction. they’re being torn from their families and towns and they don’t know what’s going to occur so there were two different ways the slaves found to end it all 1. hello had their hands free, the dirt transformed into earth after downpour, they would gather up a portion of the mud and would stifle to death 2. through rocks at hives of Africanized honey bees and permit themselves to be stung to death the individuals who endure get to the coast and the y’re offered to an european boat skipper they’re marked with the organizations logo on the back and within the cheek at that point put into the kayaks to the harbor to the huge slave dispatches another type of self destruction they would tip the kayaks and suffocate in light of the fact that they didn’t realize how to swim Second Leg center entry ships were freight ships not traveler ships crunched together on the grounds that you need the same number of â€Å"product† to get to the new world to sell fragile circumstance for commander they didn’t need to squander food on them yet they couldn’t bite the dust of starvation slave proprietors permitted to happen permitted the captives to showcase their inborn moves (this is the way you get the exchange of african social music to the US) regardless of what the boat proprietors did 0-15% didn’t endure starvation and resistance endeavored revolts needed to return the boat to africa when they bombed the disciplines were merciless you don’t kill a slave in light of the fact that you’re killing your monetary property rather you would remove a tounge or brand them again in extremely touchy zones won’t kill on the grounds that doesn’t bode well Third Leg in the ports barters if a family was by one way or another ready to endure initial two legs, this is the place they would be unloaded and separated the slaves were jabbed and prauded to see their physical position and their cavities were checked for ailment compaired to steers acution Slavery in America irst africans came to america in 1619 and were brought over by the dutch and offered to americans those first africans were obligated workers and not slaves multi year contract when it was up they got their own territory and materials subjugation sets aside a long effort to create by the 1660’s we have dark slave work in america not on the grounds that they’re african but since they need a work power The Virgina Codes further the way to bigotry 1660s if you’re brought into the world under a slave mother the kid is a slave forever Norther Colonies there were slaves here yet little in number white families claimed perhaps 1 or 2 slaves and they lived in the house with them. They plunked down and ate dinners together many were permitted to wed and have youngsters diverse foundation part of the explanation it’s distinctive on account of the Quakers about social correspondence and the main abolitionists bigotry is against moral code and divine beings plan greater explanation slaves were not as essential and a monetary channel monetarily not required littler ranches sort of agribusiness is unique and you don’t need the work power industrialization and there are mechinized approaches to pick apples or milk a dairy animals movement, toward the north the poor moves go and many are catholic. or then again numerous norther provinces africans were higher on the scale from catholics. a large number of the couple of african slaves had rights and some could claim property and shops ( bungalow businesses ) some had the option to have kids and wed so extraordinary that by the 1800’s there were no slaves (bricklayer dixon line) Southern Colonies su bjection characterizes the south with their economy, legislative issues, race structure gigantic ramifications through southern culture Free Black Persons previous slaves that are presently free and exists in an odd world most needed to convey recognizable proof papers saying they’re a free dark individual how accomplished opportunity purchased liberated military support work out an arrangement with ace to purchase opportunity cash could be made by having your own side business different treatments were liberated by experts frequently found in will lave proprietors in western locales of south that were confronting indian wars and white bosses would make manages captives to battle with them against locals and they would allow opportunity a portion of these free dark individuals were slave proprietors and gave two motivations to whyt hello onwed slaves as a dark individual themselves they would be more accommodating than the white slave proprietor would this was normally bunk and never the case basic financial matters dark slave proprietors needed to be rich and the least expensive wellspring of work were slaves (one dark proprietor in louisiana had 91 slaves)

Is Theseus an example of a typical ancient Greek hero Essay

Is Theseus a case of an average old Greek saint - Essay Example The story follows similar themes that are trailed by other saint stories. These themes incorporate the foundation of the saint, the gallant undertakings achieved by the legend, his adoration life and his destruction because of his own missteps. Like a few other Greek legend stories, the account of Theseus even spotlights on the foundation of the saints. Ruler Raglan has given occasions that happen in the lives of a Greek saint and a portion of these occasions identify with the foundation in regards to the introduction of the legend. Raglan expresses that a Greek saint is for the most part destined to an imperial mother and his dad is either mortal or a godlike individual (Dowden 104). The dad of a legend much of the time is either a God or a King. In Theseus case, he was really destined to a lord named Aegeus yet was raised by a ruler named Pittheus who was additionally his granddad (Grant 14). Raglan even expresses that not long previously or on the money after the introduction of a Greek saint, the kid is attempted to be murdered by his own dad or even by his own granddad. In the account of Theseus, he was done whatever it takes not to be executed by any of his family members during childbirth. Raglan even noticed that th e greater part of the Greek legends are raised by both of the guardians or by guardians who are not identified with him by blood. If there should be an occurrence of Theseus, he was raised by her mom, yet he even had his granddad as a dad picture and isn't raised by non-permanent parents. Moreover Raglan contends that when the Greek saint grows up or arrives at the existence phase of masculinity, he is educated about his real dad and later embarks to guarantee the realm he is going to control in future (Dowden 104). If there should be an occurrence of Theseus, his mom later educates him that his dad is a King and aides him to play out an undertaking that will demonstrate to the lord that Theseus is his child. He finishes the errand which is to lift a stone and get the shoe and blade of his dad and sets out on an excursion to meet his dad and live under his father’s Kingdom. Another significant component of a chivalrous story

jack the ripper Essay -- essays research papers

     It all began in the East End of London in 1888, from August 7 till November 10. All killings happened inside one mile zone and included the regions of Whitechapel, Spitalfields, Aldgate, and the city of London appropriate. The man I am alluding to is no other then the infamous Jack the Ripper, the Whitechapel, or the Leather Apron.      Jack the Ripper is huge and famous, not on the grounds that he was a sequential executioner, but since he was the first to show up in an enormous city when the general puplic had gotten educated and the press was a power for social change. The Ripper showed up when there was a gigantic political disturbance and the two dissidents and social reformers, additionally the Irish Home standard partisans attempted to utilize the violations for their own finishes. Its difficult to accept this has just happened twelve years prior. Ordinarily there would be an article or an annal in the paper about the exercises of the Ripper or the police. Huge numbers of you recollect this and finding out about the Ripper and comprehend what I am discussing. The press was a major piece of the entire case since we educated people in general of the killings and it appeared this was all new to everybody simply because it was the most pitched case. This kind of thing has occurred previously, however nobody thought about it what's more, presently you know this present reality. The press had made the â€Å"boogey man† and numerous legends and riddles for the general population.  â â â â ...

Weekend Giveaway TONIGHT IM SOMEONE ELSE by Chelsea Hodson

Weekend Giveaway TONIGHT IM SOMEONE ELSE by Chelsea Hodson This giveaway is sponsored by  Tonight I’m Someone Else, Chelsea Hodson. Published by Holt Paperbacks. From graffiti gangs and Grand Theft Auto to sugar daddies, Schopenhauer, and a deadly game of Russian roulette, Chelsea Hodson probes her desires in these essays to examine where the physical and proprietary collide. She asks what our privacy, intimacy, and bodies are worth in the increasingly digital world of liking, linking, and sharing. This tender and jarring collection is relevant to anyone who’s ever searched for what the self is worth. We have 10 copies of Tonight I’m Someone Else  by Chelsea Hodson to give away to 10 Riot readers! Just complete the form below to enter.  Entries are open to residents of the United States (excluding Puerto Rico and all other US territories) and will be accepted until 11:44:59 pm, June 8, 2018. Winner will be randomly selected. Complete rules and eligibility requirements available here. Oops! We could not locate your form.

Film Audience Trailers

As the main function of a film trailer is to market the film and promote to a range of audiences film trailers are also a form of persuasive art and promotional narrative, they are designed to make you want to go and see the film being shown at the cinema. As film trailers do give you the free sample of the film being advertised they also function as a tool to allow us to be aware of what films have been released on cinema and as Lisa Kernan states, Trailers are a cinema of (coming) attractions. And this essentially means film trailers are individual events allowing us to also see upcoming events in the future. Film trailers permit the viewers to generate opinions of their own so they can decide which films to go and watch. Trailers are my chosen topic for this dissertation, it will focus on the principle features of the film trailers, where I will analyse case studies to highlight the use of classic American film techniques and in return the analysis will answer the questions, what is a film trailer? How does a film trailer create meaning? Film trailers brought to my attention the ability they have to reconfigure a feature length film narrative into a short cinematic film. It is this factor which brings me to analyse film trailers closely. I will be closely paying attention to a chosen element of the extensive range the marketing campaign. In particular I have chosen to look into film trailers. From Marketing I will move on to film trailers, where I am going to call attention to the design of film trailer, which will consist of analysing and identifying the principle features. These are its bare essentials, the Narrative, the Genre, the Sound; they are combined to create a film trailer. Each of these elements will be analysed along with several case studies to provide examples for the use of these elements. I will be looking for the use of editing techniques to determine how they create meaning and desired effects, such techniques include transitions, types of shot and bridging devices along with the use of captions. Other such techniques that will be brought up are the emphasis on the unique selling point of a film and using the star system to sell the film. These techniques in return will show how the narrative, the genre are some of the principle features constituting to the overall design of a film trailer. Further more into the analysis I will look at sound techniques such as voice over narration, the sound track and sound effects created for the film trailers. These techniques will determine the meaning Sound brings to the film trailer. Overall by looking at these techniques in different film trailers I will show how these principle features create effects and show how they function and what meanings they generate. Once I have established the meanings of the design of a film I will look at the functions of a trailer in its intended market. I will talk about the functions of the marketing campaign as a total strategy. I will broadly look into the marketing campaign to explain its importance in the film industry. Within in marketing I will be looking at the functions and effects of Distribution, promotion and advertising as the broader context in which film trailers fit into. I will consider factors such as market research into social cultures and why it is necessary, in addition with internet advertising and distribution as a tool for the mass audience. Moving on from the marketing of film trailers to the actual creation and techniques used in trailers known as the design. First I am going to look at the film trailer in general and state briefly what elements are used to construct the film trailer this will give us the groundworks and background information for film trailers so I can start to distinguish the finer elements in detail. In general film trailers tend to show us the most interesting images from a film; the scenes that will appeal to the viewers or make them laugh or create a sense of fear, any thing to excite the audience. To define a trailer to its bare essentials, I ask the question what makes a film trailer distinct and special. I believe that when certain key features are put together they create a powerful persuasive form of mini film. It is the use of techniques in which the trailers are created in there style that makes them distinct, as later I will prove in my analysis that each trailers approaches the design and style in showing the film in a unique and individual way while still employing classic Hollywood film techniques. The use of different shots and combining these shots to emphasize the films best features as well as the use of transitions and graphics are some classic Hollywood techniques used in promoting a film trailer. My research in film trailers has lead me to believe that the use of montage sequences and shot selection are the elements that bring together the narrative, genre and sound to create the film trailers. It is the capacity of film trailers to convey information non-verbally through mise-en-scene, editing, camera movements and facial expressions that provides the power to promote in such a big way Narrative The first principle feature of film trailers is the narrative. The film trailer creates a separate narrative to present the narrative of the feature length film. Narration is the telling of a story, and the plot of a film trailer implies story information. It is the narrational component of trailers which is significant to their production of meaning. Some trailers focus more on this feature as the film most likely covers important issues or contain a meaning of some importance these types of narratives are known as non-fictional. Fictional films tend to focus on explaining the background information to establish the story, I am going to look at a specific genre of film trailers, I have chosen action films spanning over the 1970s 80s and 90s. The Terminator film is a perfect example of a trailer that employs a specific technique of plot development. The narrative function is to introduce the character, in this case study it is The Terminator where the story implies a search and destroy plot. The voice over states what the plot is going to be about by saying a few facts, the last few words that are said explain the type of plot development you can expect in the film, It will have only one purpose, to return to the present and prevent the future. This weapon will be called The Terminator. With out this information the audience would be confused and the trailer would become arbitrary; it is the narrative that gives the film context first along with the images which reveal more of the plot. The use of narrative to explain the films meaning and purpose is essential, the function of narrative in this trailer shows the technique of a goal orientated plot. there are goal orientated plots, in which a character takes steps to achieve a desired object or state of affairs Plot development is a technique employed in many other action film trailers as I have noticed. The Die Hard film trailer reveals a plot where the central character John McLain is trying to save his wife who has been taken hostage among many others in a building. This plot reveals patterns of repeated action. Trailers use plot patterns to allow the audience to expect a certain type of plot, the audience create their own more specific intentions, as the trailer goes on revealing the audiences expectations become more precise. Aliens is a perfect example of a search and destroy plot pattern that is identified in the first scene of the movie where the female heroine known as Sigourney weaver asks a question and gets a simple reply. This small amount of dialogue explains the development of plot you can expect to see in the film itself. Just tell me one thing Berk, were going out to destroy themrite, not to study, not to bring back, but to wipe them out? Thats the plan! Although this dialogue alone is unjustified until you see the action that follows it. This statement implies that there is something out there and not of a friendly nature, Sigourneys intentions are to go out there and destroy something. It is clear that narrative in trailers plays an integral role in the creation of meaning in delivering the narrative plot of the feature length film correctly, without revealing too much but making it interesting enough. The two trailers mentioned above use voice over to narrate the story information where as my next example employs the use of inter titles. The inter titles are words on a blank screen or superimposed over images, which contribute to the meaning of the plot or story information. In addition they are used as a transition between time and space, the connotative meanings of the words are interpreted by social cultures who relate the words to the nature of the society in which they live in. The trailer lets the images reveal more about the style and dialogue of the film, while the inter titles connote different meanings and informs the audiences of what to expect in the film. This is a different technique to inform the audience of the type of plot development they can expect. In addition to the narrative development of plots, the middle portion of the trailer displays the events that define action and adventure are the causes of the delays of expected outcomes. These events may cause suspense, fear, excitement and surprise. For example in the Die hard film trailer the number of obstacles John McLain has to fight through to save his wife are just the delayed expectations, creating suspense and progressing through to the final climaxes of the film. Although this true film trailers differ slightly in the fact that scenes are shown leading up to the climax but you have to remember it is only a trailer and its purpose is to interest you, so the climax is never shown. This brings me to talk about the narrative in its effect of making audiences want to experience the action and fear created buy viewing through the safe environment of the cinema. By only seeing certain key scenes in a film trailers they allow you to create affective expectations and generate your own intentions of what the full feature will contain. These expectations from the audiences are what Wolfgang Iser calls Textual Gaps. The film industry assume the audience will generate there own desired intentions, emotions and expectations after viewing the trailers. For example a trailers principle features or rhetoric might highlight a films quality of music or sound and spectacle or narrative. This is vital in terms of audiences having there own intentions and wanting to go and see a film they desire rather then seeing the real film. The point being, plot developments in trailers only reveal a certain amount and their purpose is to inform but then entice audiences to fill in the remaining information with intentions then effectively the trailer has fulfilled its job in attracting the viewer. Genre The narrative explanation of story plot and information is closely related to the genre in terms of the style in which this narrative is represented and in a form that audiences can recognize. Some trailers focus more specifically on the dialogue, sometimes the trailer will focus more on the spectacles or just show who stars in the film and name the most famous actors. This usually identifies quickly the genre and type of film trailer you are viewing. For instance the Die Hard film sets the narrative and then the remainder of the trailer focuses more on display of the established conventions recognised by the American society such as the use of guns and explosions that are emphasized on. Another film that I will analyse approaches the genre in a similar manor. Alien V Predator Requiem starts of by presenting a very calm environment then suddenly turns to show action and gun fire. To show the audience the genre of the film both these trailers employ similar techniques. Both these trailers point to the use of Tzvetan Todorovs narrative theory, in which the narrative situations take transformational steps in the process of cause an effect principle. This is evident in Alien Vs Predator Requiem trailer where equilibrium is stated with an establishing scene of the town location, a disruption is outlined in the trailer by the entrance of an unknown object through the sky and the following scenes displays the killing of a father hunting in the forest with his child. As a search party make there way through the forest to find a body, becomes the recognition of the disruption. The footage that follows, display the attempt to repair the disruption caused in the earlier stages of transformation of the narrative. Anomaly with film trailers is that the last stage on transformation known as the reinstatement of the initial equilibrium is not shown as this lures the audiences into going to see the full story. Although I have analysed a film trailer with the use of a narrative theory while talking about genre, it is relevant for the following reason. The nature in which the story follows the stages of transformation also shows that action has to be taken against the disruption of the equilibrium. This allows the images to focus on the action and genre of this film trailer. It is the formation of selected shots which appear to present itself in the form of this causal transformation All film trailers will have establishing scenes with a message clearly showing the films genre, either by showing particular scenes or putting emphasis on the story and actors. I will be closely analysing the Die Hard trailer as a case study to distinguish the meaning of genre and how it is created in trailers. An important technique to describe here is the unique selling point of film trailers in which the films most attractive features are shown and emphasized on. I believe this technique is directly linked in identifying the genre of action films. This is evident in the Die Hard trailer as the big spectacles are emphasized on to present the action in a loud and interesting manner, therefore the unique selling point of the trailer being the action. This leads to the use of conventional genre ideas that are recognised by many audiences in the broader perspective. These conventional genre ideas being such features as guns, big car chases as well as car crashes and explosions of some nature. These events inform the audience of particular attributes that allow viewers to distinguish action films from horror films. These traits are quickly recognisable features within a cultural society of film viewers. Further more one technique of defining a film trailer through genre is the selection of shot types used in creating the trailer. The editing technique is very important in the creation of the trailer, because the selection of shot determines the effect achieved on screen and also the use of shot can explain clearly what the scene is showing. As the die hard trailer starts, Christmas music is playing, the setting and environment looks natural as the equilibrium has been set, until the trailer changes its mood. A close up shot of the villain shows him shooting a number of bullets into the air. This scene of a gun being fired defines the trailer as an action film, as the scenes to follow show more action. The audience only know this through past cinematic experience which implies action films have a number of set agreed cinematic conventions to which the audience identify film trailers through. Another action genre film trailer also employs the same techniques of unique selling points and the use of shot selection to present the action such as Alien Vs Predator Requiem. The trailer begins with a slow tempo and an establishing shot to show the peaceful environment, at this point the genre is fairly unclear. Around the middle of the trailer the mood changes and a medium shot shows a ball of fire entering the scene, this implies an object has shot past from outer space. This is the definitive scene in the trailer because it shows a change in the narrative. The following scene show more action and the trailer then goes on to show the films unique selling point, the Alien. In addition actors are also used to sell films because of their star status. This is evident in my next case study Pulp Fiction. The scenes in this trailer are used to show the large cast starring in the film, while still showing the film in a clever design. The unique selling point of this film trailer is the use of the actors star status as well as the action in the film. While this film lacks big spectacles it is still an action movie but focuses more on the dialogue and narrative. The trailer introduces the idea of different stories taking place while putting the emphasis on the cast. The trailer uses intertitles to bridge the first story from the second, in between these scenes the trailer uses inter titles to display the words loyalty, betrayal and crime to separate the stories, at the same time very little is revealed. By introducing the cast through each of the stories, the use of the inter titles using words associated with the stories the film trailer sets the genre as well as the unique selling point of the film. Because the focus is directed more on the cast and the narrative the action comes across as equal as the other features. The trailer ends with a voice over reading out the names of the actors that star in the film, the scenes also follow each other rapidly and are timed with the names being read out. This type of sequence is known as the montage sequience. A montage sequence is where a series of shots are arranged in a particular order for a particular purpose. The sequence is more about presenting the footage in a different way rather that providing the illusion of natural continuity. In the Pulp Fiction trailer this sequence was used to show the actors when their names where being read out. At the same time this sequence was used to show more scenes from the film. Overall the trailer doesnt reveal much about the story but highlights the Genre and actors very well. I think the trailer is cleverly created in the sense that very little is revealed yet enough is seen along with the three descriptive words giving a definition of the story for the audience to associate what is seen with the tittles describing what will occur in the film. These words leave the narrative open for the audiences imaginations to build up a film they would like to see. In effect the use editing techniques such as montage sequences and selection of specific shots and transitions trailers form ways of presenting the narrative of a film with aesthetic. Sound As genre and narrative work hand in hand to show the plot and genre another principle feature of a film trailer is the use of Sound. Sound in film trailers is very important, it forces the viewers to use more then just the visual sense, and instead the sound engages the aural senses of the viewers. As sound is as important as the visual footage it can achieve very strong effects and yet remain unnoticed, it is very unlikely a spectator comes out the cinema and acknowledges the film for its aural efforts. As Sergei Eisenstien called synchronization of senses known as combining the image and the sound to create a single rhythm or expressive quality. I have picked a trailer for my case study where I think the synchronization of sound with image is important in the creation of meaning and overall mood of the film. The sound used in films is known as the film sound track for example the Rocky film trailer. This trailer uses music to create emotion and mood in away that emphasizes the emotion created in the scenes, this emotion is used to reach out to the audience for them to engage with the characters feelings. The Rocky trailer uses a specific sound track to create emotion around the story for example the tempo and rhythm changes according to the images. The music changes dramatically in the scene with rocky and the women kissing, this scene implies romance but the music sets a specific mood that an audience can relate to, it creates an atmosphere to go with the scene. The next scene shows a man having a talk with Rocky, the music changes instantly to imply chance, possibility and the intention of something happening (Cause and Effect) the music here changes from the piano to a kind of tower clock bell ringing. This trailer uses music to create emotion but it is in excess of change, the mood in the trailer changes to often and switches from romance to opportunity then back to sad music then to energetic music, the positive side to this music is it displays an emotional plot and the Rockys struggle to make something of his life. This kind of sound is known as nondiegetic sound. Nondiegetic sound is represented by sources existing outside the story world. As I carrying out analysis on action film trailers nondiegetic sound is important as music is the most commonly used type of sound in action films to create effective emphasis on the action: Viewers understand that the movie music is a convention and does not issue from the world of the story A trailer is defined as a brief film text that uses images from a specific feature film while asserting its excellence, its purpose being to project in theatres to promote a films theatrical release. A film trailer is an essential marketing tool and the nuclei of the promotional effort being an advert for a film the trailers design features are as important as its other functions. The most important principle of a film trailer is what it functions as best, its distribution, promotion and marketing of an upcoming film. This process occurs before the product reaches the viewers. There are many forms through which we can communicate. I consider this statement as a starting point linked to film trailers because trailers are presented in many mediums to a wide range of audiences to different cultures. This is also where the idea of promoting trailers and marketing them begins correctly. There are many different processes to consider in knowing the target audience and what type of category the film fits into. As I am going to be looking at the action genre in film trailers, the target audience will be a core audience who is attracted by the varying story lines but the essential action is what appeals to them. Films are put into certain categories known as genres, these films having different attributes which in turn address different audiences. Attracting a huge audience starts with knowing the genre and type of film, this leads to the right distributor who is required to get the film to the exhibitors. The marketing campaign also lets the audience know the film is in the process of being produced and when the release date has been set for. The idea of releasing the trailer early is to create a fan base or create enough interest for a potential audience and to generate enough hype up until the film is finished and ready to premiere. The importance of marketing a film can affect the overall outcome of the film in theatres. The marketing of a film includes the total strategy required to sell a film. This strategy includes the different types of advertising, promotion and distribution of a feature length film. Marketing is the strategy employed to find the most effective way to get to your audience or buyer Once a film is complete, marketing supplements the various forms of conventional advertising (Trailers, Television, Radio, Press, Poster Campaigns and the Internet). The idea of marketing lies around creating a positive image around the film which has been produced. As quoted above the conventional advertising practices, one has not been mentioned, name tie-ins. Tie-ins are contracts between companies selling consumer products with distribution companies. The consumer products can be of everyday use such as food labels carrying images and titles of the films, toys and cloths, all of which promote the film. Although advertising is a specific strategy to expose a feature length film, the marketing is more about the total exposure to the general public on the whole. An important part of the marketing process is known as Market research. This element is vital to the success of a blockbuster movie of contemporary cinema. Its function is to monitor the response of the publics reception towards an advertised film and to change the marketing strategy accordingly. The three most significant events in selling a film are the pitching of a film idea, finding the distributor and finding an exhibitor. First the distributors or financiers have to finance a movie where a script has been written by someone who wants it to be made into a film. The financiers or the distributors are known as the first buyers. From this the distributor must market the film further and pitch the finished film to an exhibitor. Just as the distributor brought the script and idea of the film so does the exhibitor wish to view the completed film before deciding to show the film in all of its chain of theaters. The Exhibitors are known as the Second Buyers. Finally the advertising and promoting a film to an audience is known as the third buyers.The promotion and the advertising is the job of the distributor and the publicist. All these processes fit together as the marketing (selling) of the film to a potential audience. Trailers are basically another form of advertising a product, where the film is the product and the trailer being the advert. Attempts were made to advertise films with trailers as early as 1912. Promotion is a form of advertising; the devices involved in promoting havent changed drastically since the exhibitors first started promoting in the film industry. I believe that the function of promotion is to inform society and different cultures that a product is out and available. It was the arrival of Nickelodeon around 1905, which fundamentally changed the advertisement strategies. Promotion of feature length films began when the amount of exhibitors grew and the competition for the amount of films released also grew. The exhibitors felt the need to advertise their films so as to attract the public to their theatres. The exhibitors put up posters, made flyers and distributed them to the homes of the general public as well as even hiring barkers to shout out information about their films. From 1908 onwards promoting products seemed the only way to reach out to the public to seek there attention and compete against other exhibitors. At this point only the exhibitors were concerned about promoting there products and fighting of other competition the studios and producers of the films were more concerned about the machines that made films. As promotion became increasingly important so did there efforts in seeking the publics attention. Weekly or monthly bulletins were produced listing up coming features; they focused on the plots, sets and stories of the films. Exhibitors set the trend with promotion of films, studios quickly caught on and opened up advertising departments in their companies. These departments controlled the production of posters and other advertising tactics; they supplied these in the form of press books to theatres during the silent and classical eras. These advertising departments established there promotional practices which also continued on into the classical era. Companies such as MGM also began using promotional campaigns; it became the standard procedure to promote films. Trailer on the other hand started appearing around 1912 but didnt become coherent until a few years later. It is clear that within a decade of Hollywood cinema the promotional campaign was the most important element in the film industry. Moving towards the classical era, trailers are the one practice where they have changed according to the lengths and qualities of the feature length films. As in the silent era films were not long enough to have trailers but in the classical era trailers generally consisted of voice over narrating on top of film footage, including text over the image using hard-sell tag-lines to sell the picture. I came across an example of a classic film containing these hard-sell tag-lines. The King Kong (1933) trailer is a perfect example of these inter titles emphasizing the film as a must see feature, one of the inter titles reads: Stillthe most amazing show on any screen! Although this function was more important in the silent area the voice over was more relied on in the classical era. The basic premise, of reminding viewers that trailers are only a quick guide to the full length feature, are still proving that these inter titles are promotional messages. I believe this promotional practice is the most effective out of the whole marketing campaign. Most of the promotional tactics that exist today-trailers, print advertisements, press books, posters, promotional tie-ins, and star premieres- were in place by 1915, although their forms have changed since then. Before internet advertising, the conventional Hollywood marketing campaign consisted of successfully advertising through well known mediums such as the Posters, the Radio, through newspapers and the T.V. These practices had remained consistent and familiar with the American cultures until 1995 media and advertising took a major leap and began a new type of advertising tactic. This tactic was known as internet promotion. In the summer 1995, media and advertising executives announced that the internet had become the new frontier in film productions. The internet plays an important role in the marketing of films, it is such a big platform for a film to be advertised. As genre is concerned it would be difficult to direct a film trailer towards a specific audience, the internet is such a level playing field that the trailer would be open at any and everyone. As Vinzenz Hediger notes, in the contemporary market, trailers are very cost effective since they utilize approximately 4.5% of the advertising budget of a given film, while generating at least 20% of the films box office revenue. This is fact adds to the reason why film trailers are my chosen topic of interest, I consider them the most effective feature in a marketing campaign. It is the visual elements and the free sample of the actual event that attracts social cultures. The internet has a big role in this. Although the internet had been around since the 1960s the main use for it was text based. Towards the late 1990s faster connections were produced opening up the opportunities to promotions and advertisement to a mass audience over a new platform. The reason for this being the internet allowed for communication through to the social cultures as well as society being able to communicate with each other. Trailers come in many formats over the internet; they can be downloaded, watched online and even downloaded to mobiles. In a professional context companies are competing on the same level, as a website nowadays can be put up fairly quickly, the only implication here is that some websites get more attention and visits then others. Marketing Batman Forever (1995) was the first major Hollywood feature to get advertised using a website as the centre piece for the campaign. As the arrival of the T.V. disrupted the flow of the film industry it seemed like the internet could possibly do the same for advertising on the T.V. This website contained more information about the films sets, plots and textual narrative all on the same website. This type of promotional campaign became more of an interactive activity which encouraged society to engage with the film experience. Through my research I have learnt that the promotional campaign has always had to adapt to the arrival of new mediums, but I have also learnt that society has adapted to. The marketing of promotional tactics is getting more and more sophisticated but also becoming more effective. Although I have covered promotional strategy and its importance in the film industry in improving the cinemas cultural standing I have yet to explain the role of the distributor. In the film industry the distribution company is seen as the agent between production and exhibition. The companies carry out the following tasks such as sales: securing the rental contracts for specific play dates, advertising directed to theatres through trade publications and to film goers through print and electronic media. The function of the distributor is very important in Hollywood film, it is their responsibility that the timing the release of the film to the different markets is crucial. As I have mentioned before trailers are part of a package that is a marketing campaign. Along with posters and adverts and tie-ins trailers have a more significant role. Trailers carry the meaning of the film with visual images; this brings in to the argument the T.V, Cinema and the Internet as media platforms to display these trailers. During the silent era only the cinema existed, therefore cinema dominated. During the classical era as technology became better the arrival of the T.V competed with advertisement on a new level. As more platforms arrived and new strategies to advertise promotional campaigns had to change. Seems that every type of platform available to advertise has been exploited to continue to hold a position in Hollywood cinema with the American Culture. To maintain the power and success of Hoolywood Cinema in the contemporary age amongst the American Culture it seems that the marketing strategy has exploited every type of advertising platform available. By the early 1970s, promotional budgets sometimes exceeded a films production costs. As new technologies change the ways in which films are viewed, from television, to video, to DVDs and digital downloads, the have also changed promotions, many of them using a number of media platforms. The internet as a media platform, for trailers began with the most famous advertising campaign know as the Blair Witch Project (1999). Although becoming the most famous internet campaign the film was seen as less important then the actual advertisement of the film. This did not change the way in which marketing strategies unfolded but did catch the attention of directors and producers, who began to request internet campaigns for the films they were producing. The point here is to stress on the promotional campaign, and not to over see the campaigns effects on attracting huge amounts of success from advertising a feature film on the internet, the novelty and the timing were important factors that helped bring success to the film. The timing is crucial to the success of a film within any medium, in terms that if trailers are released to soon viewers will lose interest but if a campaign is released to late the distribution company will face the responsibility of not exposing the film long enough to the public.

The Lend-Lease Act in World War II

The Lend-Lease Act, formally known as the An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States, was passed March 11, 1941. Championed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the legislation allowed military aid and supplies to be offered other nations. Passed before the United States entered World War II, the Lend-Lease Program effectively ended American neutrality and offered a means for directly supporting Britains war against Germany and Chinas conflict with Japan. Following the American entry into World War II, Lend-Lease was expanded to include the Soviet Union. During the course of the conflict, around $50.1 billion worth of materials were supplied on the premise that it would be paid for or returned. Background With the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, the United States assumed a neutral stance. As Nazi Germany began winning a long string of victories in Europe, the administration of President Franklin Roosevelt began seeking ways to aid Great Britain while remaining free of the conflict. Initially constrained by the Neutrality Acts which limited arms sales to cash and carry purchases by belligerents, Roosevelt declared large amounts of American weapons and ammunition surplus and authorized their shipment to Britain in mid-1940. He also entered into negotiations with Prime Minister Winston Churchill to secure leases for naval bases and airfields in British possessions across the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic coast of Canada. These talks ultimately produced the Destroyers for Bases Agreement in September 1940. This agreement saw 50 surplus American destroyers transferred to the Royal Navy and Royal Canadian Navy in exchange for rent-free, 99-year leases on various military installations. Though they succeeded in repelling the Germans during the Battle of Britain, the British remained hard-pressed by the enemy on multiple fronts. Royal Navy and U.S. Navy sailors inspect depth charges aboard Wickes-class destroyers, in 1940 before their transfer to the Royal Navy. Library of Congress The Lend-Lease Act of 1941 Seeking to move the nation towards a more active role in the conflict, Roosevelt wished to provide Britain with all possible aid short of war. As such, British warships were permitted to make repairs in American ports and training facilities for British servicemen were constructed in the U.S. To ease Britains shortage of war materials, Roosevelt pushed for the creation of the Lend-Lease Program. Officially titled An Act Further to Promote the Defense of the United States, the Lend-Lease Act was signed into law on March 11, 1941. This act empowered the president to sell, transfer title to, exchange, lease, lend, or otherwise dispose of, to any such government [whose defense the President deems vital to the defense of the United States] any defense article. In effect, it allowed Roosevelt to authorize the transfer of military materials to Britain with the understanding that they would ultimately be paid for or returned if they were not destroyed. To administer the program, Roosevelt created the Office of Lend-Lease Administration under the leadership of former steel industry executive Edward R. Stettinius. In selling the program to a skeptical and still somewhat isolationist American public, Roosevelt compared it to loaning a hose to a neighbor whose house was on fire. What do I do in such a crisis? the president asked the press. I dont say... Neighbor, my garden hose cost me $15; you have to pay me $15 for it - I dont want $15 — I want my garden hose back after the fire is over. In April, he expanded the program by offering lend-lease aid to China for their war against the Japanese. Taking swift advantage of the program, the British received over $1 billion in aid through October 1941. An American light tank is unloaded at a central ordnance depot in England, part of a lend-lease shipment from the United States. Library of Congress Effects of Lend-Lease Lend-Lease continued after the American entry into the war following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. As the American military mobilized for war, Lend-Lease materials in the form of vehicles, aircraft, weapons, etc. were shipped to other Allied nations who were actively fighting the Axis Powers. With the alliance of the United States and the Soviet Union in 1942, the program was expanded to allow their participation with large amounts of supplies passing through the Arctic Convoys, Persian Corridor, and the Alaska-Siberia Air Route. As the war progressed, most of the Allied nations proved capable of manufacturing sufficient frontline weapons for their troops, however, this led to a drastic reduction in the production other needed items. Materials from Lend-Lease filled this void in the form of munitions, food, transport aircraft, trucks, and rolling stock. The Red Army, in particular, took advantage of the program and by wars end, approximately two-thirds of its trucks were American-built Dodges and Studebakers. Also, the Soviets received around 2,000 locomotives for supplying its forces at the front. Reverse Lend-Lease While Lend-Lease generally saw goods being provided to the Allies, a Reverse Lend-Lease scheme also existed where goods and services were given to the United States. As American forces began arriving in Europe, Britain provided material assistance such as the use of Supermarine Spitfire fighters. Additionally, Commonwealth nations often provided food, bases, and other logistical support. Other Lead-Lease items included patrol boats and De Havilland Mosquito aircraft. Through the course of the war, the United States received around $7.8 billion in Reverse Lend-Lease aid with $6.8 of it coming from Britain and the Commonwealth nations. End of Lend-Lease A critical program for winning the war, Lend-Lease came to an abrupt end with its conclusion. As Britain needed to retain much of the Lend-Lease equipment for postwar use, the Anglo-American Loan was signed through which the British agreed to purchase the items for approximately ten cents on the dollar. The total value of the loan was around  £1,075 million. The final payment on the loan was made in 2006. All told, Lend-Lease provided $50.1 billion worth of supplies to the Allies during the conflict, with $31.4 billion to Britain, $11.3 billion to the Soviet Union, $3.2 billion to France and $1.6 billion to China.

Types of Meditation - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 589 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2019/08/16 Category Psychology Essay Level High school Tags: Meditation Essay Did you like this example? A loved ones death, sudden unemployment, broken relationships these are just some of the painful situations people around the world go through. Its common to feel burdened or sad when these unfortunate events occur. But, some people have it worse. Depression is a common mental illness worldwide. In fact, more than 300 million people are suffering from depression globally. Unlike short-term unfavorable response to lifes difficulties, depression goes beyond mood changes and emotional breakdowns. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Types of Meditation" essay for you Create order A review published in the JAMA Internal Medicine showed that meditation programs can help reduce depression, anxiety, and stress-related health problems. But how exactly can meditation affect ones mental health and spirituality? This article will dive into the wonders of meditation, and its impact on peoples mind and inner peace. You will also learn about the various types of meditation and how you can put them into practice. Types of Meditation Meditation takes various forms. You can choose from a wide array of meditation types, depending on your needs and preferences. Below are some of the best ways to meditate: Loving-Kindness Meditation Also called the Metta meditation, the Loving-Kindness meditation aims to develop a loving and kind approach towards all things, even daily stressors or personal detractors. Through this practice, meditators allow their minds to receive love and kindness by repeating compassionate messages to himself or herself, and certain people. This meditation practice anchors ones mindfulness on the heart, promoting feelings of love and compassion towards oneself and others. The Loving-Kindness or Metta meditation can benefit people who are frustrated, resentful, offended, and bitter, and those who are experiencing interpersonal conflict. This type of meditation, which has been associated with reduced anxiety, post-traumatic stress (PTSD), and depression can promote positive emotions and vibrations. Mindfulness Meditation In Mindfulness Meditation, practitioners are invited to be present at the moment. Instead of being stuck in the past or worried about the future, mindfulness teaches the meditator to be aware of what surrounds him in present time. This type of meditation does away with judgement. A person simply observes his surroundings calmly without discrimination. This practice is a common form of meditation, which anyone can perform almost anywhere. Because this meditation type is also commonly practiced, several studies were already conducted on its impact on ones mental health. Research showed that mindfulness meditation can improve ones focus and memory, reduce obsession with negative feelings and impulsive, irrational reactions. Studies also revealed that mindfulness can promote relationship gratification. Transcendental Meditation Transcendental meditation, on the other hand, makes use of mantras that are repeated within 15 to 20 minutes, twice every day while the practitioner is seated with eyes closed. This practice allows the practitioner to be perfectly still and at rest, and achieve a total absence of mental limitations. But compared with other types of meditation, the Transcendental Meditation (TM) involves an authorized teacher and a seven-step course. Following a lecture, an interview, and a personal instruction from a certified instructor, a unique mantra will be given to the meditator, which should be kept confidential. The instructor regularly meets with TM meditators to make sure that they are doing the technique correctly. While meditation programs are said to help improve several mental health problems, other reports suggest that it can also worsen the condition of people suffering from certain psychiatric conditions. So, if you have a mental health condition, it is best to check with your physician first before you practice meditation techniques. Also, remember to discuss your condition (if there are any) to your instructor before proceeding with the TM method.

The Projetion of the Perfection Paradox - 1176 Words

The Projection of the Perfection Paradox In Renà © Descartes’s Discourse on Method, â€Å"seeking the true method for arriving at knowledge† (p. 10) is the goal in which he states in the beginning of discourse. With that end in mind, by analyzing proofs that Descartes finds it can be seen if this was achieved. The proof that God exist is a defining moment in the discourse since God is continually referenced for origin of true knowledge. The reference to God does not only set the stage for further proofs on knowledge, but as the original truth, all of what Descartes finds real can be related back to God. This idea will be key in order to keep the excising of the method going when Descartes falls stagnant when relating to the external world (p. 19). Nevertheless, his two proofs of the existence of God affect the entire discourse either logical or structurally. His reasoning for the both proofs is in someway exposed to either an assumption or a logical mistake. While the need for two proofs reflects negat ively on the way the theme is structured through out the entire discourse. Inherently, the way these issue are dealt with will show the proficiency of Descartes ‘s method. God’s existence is a fundamental idea in the Discourse on Method, since Descartes’s method is unsuccessful to prove this idea with out any error; the entire message of the discourse suffers. Descartes’s method, as shown in part two, is set up to ensure that he is conducting his reasoning with the most

The Documentary Ghost Of Rwanda - 987 Words

The documentary â€Å"Ghost in Rwanda† illustrates the devastation of the 1994 Genocide where approximately eight hundred thousand Rwandans were exterminated by their own government. The genocide was a result of ongoing conflicts between the Hutu, the ethnic majority in Rwanda, and the Tutsi the ethnic minority. The United Nation assisted in the establishment of a peace agreement between the two warring parties and sent General Romeo Dallaire, UN Force Commander, to Rwanda to ensure the terms of the agreement were honored. Dallaire had never seen action and welcomed opportunity to make a difference supporting peace in Africa. The peace mission was especially important to Dalliaire in light of recent U.N. failures to maintain peace in Somalia and Bosnia. Considering the UN’s recent failures to facilitate peace in Africa, more care should have gone into assigning leadership roles. While Dallaire came across as a passionate and enthusiastic leader, he admitted he lacked experience and had no prior knowledge on the history of Rwandan cultural or its ethnic conflicts. Even as Dallaire set up his campaign in a rundown hotel in Kigal the peace agreement was being undermined. His arrival was marked by a slew of riots and assassinations, all of which were tests of his ability to maintain the peace. It soon became apparent to Dallaire and Hutu extremist than the UN was ill prepared to handle the peace keeping mission at hand. The genocide was sparked by the assassination of RwandanShow MoreRelatedGhosts of Rwanda Essay1374 Words   |  6 PagesGhosts of Rwanda Reflection Does the Genocide in Rwanda have a singular cause? I do not believe so; the cause of genocide in Rwanda in 1994 was due to years of built up hatred between the Tutsis and the Hutus along with many other occurrences. The Rwandan Genocide is no exception with many variables contributing to the horrific events that took place. According to the documentary Ghosts of Rwanda, in 1994, Rwanda experienced a premeditated, systematic and state sponsored genocide with the aimRead MoreGovernment And Local Officials During The 100 Day Period3050 Words   |  13 PagesDuring the 100-day period from April 6th to mid-July, 1994, an estimated 800,000–1,000,000 Rwandans were killed, which equaled as much as 20% of the country s total population and 70% of the Tutsi population living in Rwanda at the time. The genocide, which was begun by Hutu extremists in the capital of Kigali, spread throughout the country with astonishing speed and brutality. The Hutu government and local officials provo ked ordinary citizens to bring death upon their neighbors. The way the governmentRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pagesthe 1959 uprising WORLD MIGRATION IN THE LONG TWENTIETH CENTURY †¢ 41 pushed thousands across the border into India. The Lebanese civil war between 1975 and 1990 and Israeli military incursions displaced close to a million people. The Rwanda massacres of July 1994 led to the exodus of close to a million mostly Tutsi refugees. The victory of a Tutsi-led government led to a larger outflow of Hutus. Most recently, the U.S. invasion of Iraq generated an exodus of 2.2 million, according

Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards Free Essays

string(135) " on a cohort of German employees by Dormann and Zapf \(2001\) in a review on the studies on the alleged stability of job satisfaction\." Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards: Motivational Theory Revisited labr_496 1.. 23 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal Abstract. We will write a custom essay sample on Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards: or any similar topic only for you Order Now A model of job satisfaction integrating economic and work environment variables was developed and used for testing interactions between rewards and work environment hazards. Data came from a representative panel of Danish employees. Results showed that psychosocial work environment factors, like information about decisions concerning the work place, social support, and in? uence, have signi? cant impacts on the level of job satisfaction. Maximizing rewards did not compensate public employees to an extent that ameliorated the negative effects on job satisfaction of experiencing low levels of any of these factors whereas in? uence did not impact job satisfaction of private employees. 1. Introduction Although job satisfaction is not considered an economic variable in itself, several studies in a labour economic context have highlighted that low job satisfaction is a determinant of resignations from the work place; see Akerlof et al. (1988), Blank and Diderichsen (1995), Clark et al. 1998), and Kristensen and Westergaard-Nielsen (2004). Other studies have shown an impact from job satisfaction on phenomena that are more dif? cult to observe directly, such as intention to leave the work place (Bockerman and Ilmakunnas, 2005), motivation and absenteeism (Keller, 1983; Tharenou, 1993), and counterproductive behaviour (Gottfredson and Holland, 1990). Work environment has been found to in? uence labour market outcomes in terms of early retirement (see Lund and Villadsen, 2005), employee long-term absence from work due to illness (see Benavides et al. 2001; Hemmingway et al. , 1997; Lund et al. , 2005), short-term sickness absence (see Munch-Hansen et al. , 2009), and productivity (see Cooper et al. , 1996). Within traditional economic theory, work environment factors have tended to be modelled as job attributes, seen as hazards at work for which compensating wage differentials are to be paid. The theory of compensating wage differentials goes as far back as Adam Smith’s book, Wealth of Nations, from 1776, where equalizing wage differentials adjust the net advantages of different jobs. This makes it possible to achieve general labour market equilibrium when work places, preferences, and technologies are heterogeneous. Rosen (1986) reviews the various studies on the area and ? nds evidence of compensating wage differentials especially for physical working conditions, like shift work, heavy, dirty, or dangerous work. Other studies ? nd no evidence of compensating wages differentials (see Ehrenberg and Smith, 1994) or, in cases where workers do receive compensating wages differences, that the compensation does not re? ct their true preferences (see Lanfranchi, 2002). Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal (author for correspondence), The National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Lerso Parkalle 105, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark. E-mail: bcl@nrcwe. dk. LABOUR 25 (1) 1–23 (2011) DOI: 10. 1111/j. 1467-9914. 2010. 00496. x JEL J6, J28, J30, J31, J45, J81  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington Rd. , Oxford OX4 2DQ, U K and 350 Main St. , Malden, MA 02148, USA. 2 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal According to the theory of compensating wages differentials, the equalization of total compensation is dependent on both perfect mobility of workers and perfect information for workers and ? rms. Both assumptions are questionable. Mobility may be, at least temporarily, limited by factors such as a high unemployment rate or family ties, restricting job choice to a speci? c mix of working hours, pay, or location. Likewise, full information regarding working conditions, especially when drawing in psychosocial work factors, cannot be known in advance, but will be experienced only in the actual work situation. Under these circumstances adverse working conditions can have an impact on the level of job satisfaction even if high wages are paid. The purpose of the present paper is to identify determinants of job satisfaction in a model that contains detailed information on both work environment and economic factors. Moreover, we wish to test if employees report the same level of job satisfaction when exposed to a hazardous work environment in which compensations are maximized, as compared with a non-hazardous work environment in which there are no compensatory rewards. The results from the ? rst analysis are of interest because most previous studies on job satisfaction either do not include all economic variables of interest, and are cross-sectional studies not accounting for unobserved heterogeneity, or include only few work environment factors. The second analysis can supplement the theory of compensating wages differentials by introducing more detailed work environment measures and by testing the capability of rewards to compensate workers for hazards in the work environment to an extent that ameliorates the effects on job satisfaction. The work environment factors considered are all evidence-based health risks factors, thereby both long-term effects on work ability and health and short-term effects on employee satisfaction and motivation are considered. The data used in this study are a panel of a representative cohort of Danish employees at two points in time, 1995 and 2000. The data set consists of individual assessments of working conditions and socio-economic data for 3,412 employees (when omitting observations with missing response on any of the items analysed here). The data were collected by the National Institute of Occupational Health in Denmark. . Theoretical background Job satisfaction is not an absolute measure but merely an indicator for a range of job characteristics. Using Locke’s (1976) de? nition, job satisfaction is a positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job and it is worth recalling here that such subjective data are generally viewed with suspicion by econo mists. Freeman (1978) states that the principal problem in interpreting responses to such questions is that they depend not only on the objective circumstances in which an individual is situated, but also on one’s psychological state. Moreover, the level of job satisfaction may also be in? uenced by ability thus representing unobservable, stable characteristics of individuals. Earlier studies within organizational psychology have shown that the level of job satisfaction varies very little over time, suggesting that it does re? ect underlying stable personal dispositions (see Schneider and Dachler, 1978). This has been tested on a cohort of German employees by Dormann and Zapf (2001) in a review on the studies on the alleged stability of job satisfaction. You read "Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards:" in category "Essay examples" The result was that after controlling for stable working conditions, the stability of job satisfaction diminishes to nonsigni? cance, indicating that an underlying dispositional in? uence on job satisfaction is not direct, but mediated by working conditions. This also suggests that the level of job satisfaction can be changed by organizational measures.  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 3 A general and well-known model of job satisfaction was developed by Herzberg (see Herzberg et al. 1959). He found that some job factors could only cause dissatisfaction or short-lasting motivation whereas other factors could invoke long-lasting positive feelings towards the job. If job factors are in fact dual with regard to their effect on job satisfaction, the method used for examining job satisfaction should account for this. If only testing for positive or negative associations between the covariates and job satisfaction, information on the factors being only capable of causing either high job satisfaction or low job satisfaction would most likely be lost. As for the effects of compensatory rewards, this may be essential and consequently separate analyses are undertaken here for the outcome being highly satis? ed with the job and the outcome being dissatis? ed with the job. Many of the earlier studies on job satisfaction have made an analytical distinction between the two genders as there consistently has been reported higher job satisfaction for women; see, for example, Sloane and Williams (2000) and Clark (1997). Where Sloane and Williams ? nd that the differences stem from men and women having different types of work, Clark ? ds that neither different jobs, their different work values, nor sample selection accounts for the gender satisfaction differential. Rather he proposes an explanation based on well-being relative to expectations. A man and a woman with the same jobs and levels of expectations would report identical levels of job satisfaction. But as women’s expectations are lower than men’s due to having been more attached to work in the home, they will report higher job satisfaction than their male counterparts even given the same working conditions. This hypothesis is supported by the ? ding that the gender satisfaction differential disappears for the young, the higher educated, professionals and those in male-dominated work places. This can be related to the length of time women have had an established position at the labour market, an issue that has been further exploited in a paper by Kaiser (2005). Here Denmark, Finland, and the Netherlands are the only European countries that do not show signi? cant gender–job satisfaction differences. They argue that the gender–job satisfaction paradox fades out in the process of ‘modernizations’ of the labour market. This modernization is facilitated if the welfare state as in Scandinavia and, to a certain extent, the Netherlands supports equal opportunities for women and men by means of, for example, kindergartens and homes for the elderly people. A more recent topic within this line of economic literature is based on the theory that the public sector is likely to attract individuals with high intrinsic motivation to care about the recipients of public service or those who thrive on the social recognition they might receive for contributing to an important mission (Benabou and Tirole, 2006). And although the picture is not fully conclusive, studies have in fact shown that publicly employed workers are less motivated by high pay and place a higher value on the intrinsic rewards than employees within the private sector. They are prepared to work for a lower overall pay level than is the case for private-sector employees because they derive satisfaction from participating in the production of a good of high social value; see, for example, Karl and Sutton (1998) and Houston (2000). Ren (2010) points to that value congruence or organization and employees can strengthen the intrinsic motivation. He also investigates whether value congruence can impact the design of the organization and ? nds that value congruence is related to employee participation in decision making and autonomy as opposed to control. Apart from the above discussed differences in the incentive structures in the public and the private sector, there is also a difference in the gender distribution within the tw o sectors as women tend to be over-represented in the public as well as the non-pro? t sector. Narcy et al. 2008) investigates possible explanations for this and ? nds that the ‘feminization’ of the public sector can be explained by the fact that women obtain a higher wage gain from choosing this sector than men do, investigating, among other factors, the social objectives pursued by the  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 4 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal public sector. Also ? exible working hours have seemed to attract women. The result in regard to wages was found for Greek data in Demoussis and Giannakopoulos (2007). In Denmark 63. per cent of the employees in the public sector are women whereas this ? gure for the private sector is only 35. 1 per cent (OECD, 1997). According to the previous discussion, a meaningful analytical distinction when studying job satisfaction is between the private and the public sector. Newer studies th at have applied this distinction with good results are, for example, Demoussis and Giannakopoulos (2007) and Ghinetti (2007). They use Greek and Italian data, respectively, and the measures are on so-called ‘domain satisfactions’ representing different facets of the job, instead of a universal measure. Ghinetti examines differences in satisfaction between the private and the public sector in regard to six non-pecuniary job attributes. He ? nds that public and private employees are equally satis? ed on three of the items, that the publicly employed are more satis? ed on two items, and one item with mixed results. Using a division on sector, gender differences can be tested by means of interactions effects. In the present paper, we use a division on sector in combination with tests of gender interaction effects. An often discussed topic in relation to job satisfaction is wage. The general assumption is that higher wage increases job satisfaction, not necessarily because it actually makes you happier in the job, but because a higher wage increases overall utility by increasing total expenditure opportunities. Many studies apply a general job satisfaction measure, which makes it dif? cult to distinguish the two effects. Furthermore, not only absolute, but also relative wage is considered to be positively correlated to the level of job satisfaction. This is when using the wages of other workers having the same characteristics and type of job for comparison; see, for example, Clark (1996). In the present paper, wage is used as one type of reward along with recognition and future opportunities at the job. In order not to confuse the relationships between the three types of rewards, we use the absolute wage in the present analyses as opposed to relative wages. The job satisfaction measure applied is a general measure of job satisfaction. Other determinants of job satisfaction often applied in analyses performed within labour economic theory and thus also used in our analyses include education, job tenure, managerial position, the unemployment rate, and marital status and number of children. Tenure and having a leading position have nearly always been found to be positively related to job satisfaction (Clark, 1997). The relationships between job satisfaction, level of education, the unemployment rate, and wages are intertwined and convoluted. Education raises wages and thus job satisfaction. But education also raises expectations with respect to job content and thus the likelihood of experiencing job dissatisfaction. In addition, there is more opportunity for mobility between jobs in the low-wage job market due to fewer matching criteria for taking a job, increasing the likelihood of job satisfaction. Finally, a lower unemployment rate can raise job satisfaction through improved mobility (see Akerlof et al. , 1988). Where possible we use the unemployment rate within speci? c professions (60 per cent in the current sample), otherwise the average unemployment rate is used. Hours of work have been considered as a measure of the disutility of work whereas utility is increasing with increased leisure time. In Denmark, as well as in many other countries, working hours have to a great extent become a non-divisible good as a result of regulation. Moreover, long working hours can be evident both for workers having a very challenging job and for workers just having too much work, as shown by Kristensen et al. (2004). As a result we decided not to use the absolute number of working hours in our analyses and included ? exibility of working hours instead. Although work environment has been used extensively in earlier job satisfaction studies, the present article restricts its focus to factors where there is evidence of negative health outcomes.  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 5 A widely used theory within psychosocial work environment research is the demand– control model, elaborated by Karasek (see Karasek and Theorell, 1990). Job demands encompass quantitative job demands, time pressure, and con? icting job demands whereas decision latitude in contrast is a measure of control and composed of level of job discretion and the degree of in? uence. Workers exposed to high demands and low control have an increased risk for a number of diseases, notably cardiovascular diseases. High job demands in association with low control have also been associated with diseases such as musculoskeletal disorders, psychiatric illness, gastrointestinal illness, cancer, suicide, sleeping problems, and diabetes (see Kristensen, 1996). Later studies (e. g. Johnson and Hall, 1988) have shown that a high level of social support can counteract the negative effects of high job strain. A more recent theory is the effort–reward imbalance model by Siegrist (1996). High effort in combination with low rewards has been shown to have an impact on stress, sudden cardiac death, and hypertension. In this model job demands are a composite measure of time pressure and other quantitative demands, similar to the demands of the demand–control model. Reward can be in the form of wages, recognition, and opportunities for personal development or career opportunities. In our analyses we integrate all three reward measures in testing if employees report the same level of job satisfaction when exposed to a hazardous work environment in which compensations are maximized, as compared with a non-hazardous work environment in which there are no compensatory rewards. Job security and predictability are related to the conception of status control. Not having a high level of information on decisions that concern the work place is an invisible stressor that has been found to predict heart disease (see Iversen et al. , 1989). In the extensive Whitehall II study set-up in Britain in order to investigate the causes of the social gradient in morbidity and mortality, the impact of privatization on a former civil-servant department when job outcomes were not established was evaluated (see Stansfeld et al. , 1997). In the gap between the announcement of the privatization and the termination phase where the employees had gained more certainty about their future job status, there was an increase in the psychiatric morbidity compared with the morbidity in the period before the announcement of the privatization. Other psychosocial health factors included in the analyses in this paper are being exposed to aggression at the work place and role con? icts. Exposure to con? icts, teasing, or threats of violence can provoke stress, anxiety, and, in the long run, fatigue in the victims (see Hoegh, 2005). Role con? ict is a measure of con? icting demands and unclear responsibilities and is considered a source of chronic stress, also shown to have an impact on job satisfaction (Fisher and Gitelson, 1983). Physical job demands are included using a measure of the frequency of odd working positions, including having the back heavily bent forward with no support for hands or arms, twisted or bent body, hands lifted to shoulder height or higher, the neck heavily bent forward or squatting or kneeling (see Lund and Tsonka, 2003). Noise is measured on a dichotomous scale re? cting if workers are exposed to noise so high that one must raise his or her voice more than 75 per cent of the time in order to communicate with others. For a review of the effects of noise on mental health, see Stansfeld et al. (2000). 3. Method 3. 1 Elaboration of variables In this paper the wording of the question on job satisfaction is: ‘Are you satis? ed with your job? ’. The answers fall in four verball y labelled and ordered categories. Possible answers are:  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 6 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal Yes, indeed’, ‘To some extent’, ‘Not so much’, and ‘No or very seldom’. For analytical purposes, answers in the category ‘Yes, indeed’ de? ne the outcome high job satisfaction whereas answers in categories ‘Not so much’ and ‘No or very seldom’ de? ne being dissatis? ed with the job. In general the variables are entered in the model in their original form. However the variable representing high demands in combination with low control, as well as the scale for social support, is composed of several measures. Social support consists of a practical and a psychological dimension, both of which are assessed in the questionnaires. The scales differ slightly from 1995 to 2000 and we have therefore dichotomized in a way that makes them equivalent. Hence we only look at situations where the employee either always receives help, support, and encouragement or not. There are separate questions for social support from colleagues and from leaders or superiors. Not always receiving support from either colleagues or superiors is assigned the lowest level, always receiving support from either colleagues or superiors are the two intermediate levels, and always receiving support from both groups is the highest level. In order to measure demands and level of control, a variable that re? ects the demands in different occupations has been constructed. Demands are de? ned as being high if work demands attention and full concentration almost all of the time, if the pace of work is perceived to be very fast, or when con? icting or unclear job demands are experienced. Low control is de? ned as a combination of limited in? uence on planning one’s own work and low job variation. 3. 2 Data and the population Data on work environment and health in the working population were obtained from the Danish Work Environment Cohort Study (DWECS) (see Burr et al. 2003). The panel started out with a simple random sample drawn from the central population register in 1990, consisting of people aged 18–59 years per 1 October 1990. People in this panel were interviewed in 1995, 2000, and 2005 and the panel is continuously adjusted for ageing and immigration. The 1990 sample consisted of 9,653 individuals of which 8,664 participated (90 per cent). Of these, 6,067 (70 per cent) were wages earners. The following 1995 sample consisted of 10,702 persons, of which 8,572 participated (80 per cent). Of the participants in 1995, 5,649 (65. 9 per cent) were wage earners, 6. 7 per cent were enterprise owners, and 27. 4 per cent were not in the job market. Of the 5,649 wage earners in 1995, 4,647 also participated in the survey in 2000 (82. 3 per cent). The population used for the analyses in this paper are the respondents who were wage earners in 1995 and who also participated in DWECS as wage earners in 2000, corresponding to 3,773 individuals. The sample only contains information about present job in 1995 and 2000, respectively, and on tenure in these jobs. Information on possible intervening unemployment spells is only obtainable when linking the data set to a register of social payment transfers that have not been within the scope of this paper. Job satisfaction has shown to be related to job change as in, for example, Kristensen and Westergaard-Nielsen (2004). As for job change in our population, a total of 1,128 individuals have changed work place in the period. When dividing this subsample on job satisfaction levels as reported in 1995, 49. 7 per cent of those who were not, or only very seldom satis? ed with the job change work place during the 5-year period whereas only 32. per cent of those who were highly or to some extent satis? ed with the job have changed job by 2000. Moreover, as wage earners who had a low degree of job satisfaction in 1995 have had a higher  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 7 incentive to leave the work force completely or start their own enterprise by 2000, the ? nal sample may be biased. To estimate the size of this potential bias, all participants in 2000 (including unemployed and enterprise owners) are divided among the four categories of job satisfaction levels reported in 1995. The results are that 21 per cent of those who were not, or only very seldom, satis? ed are not in the work force in 2000. Of those who were highly or to some extent satis? ed with the job, only 14 per cent had left the work force. However, the total amount of dissatis? ed workers who have left the sample amounts to 58 persons and attrition should therefore not pose a serious threat to the reliability of results. After deducting observations with missing values on any of the analysed items, the cohort consisted of 3,412 individuals. See Table 1 for sample characteristics. 3. 3 Statistical analyses The data resulting from measuring qualitative phenomena by the use of questionnaires are most often categorical, ordinally scaled data. This means that they are ordered, but with intervals that might be uneven. One example is measures of job satisfaction using a verbal rating scale, consisting of a discrete number of verbally described ordered categories. This type of data restricts the types of arithmetic operations that can be applied, which in turn limit the range of statistical methods suitable for the analysis. As noted earlier, another problem when analysing job satisfaction is that of unobserved heterogeneity. It causes problems because the regression model is based on the assumption that there is no correlation between the explanatory variables and the error term. But as the error term captures the variation from potentially omitted variables such as ? xed personal traits that may in? uence the probability of a speci? c outcome on the job satisfaction variable, this type of model error is likely to occur in analyses of job satisfaction. A method to eliminate heterogeneity is the application of conditional likelihood in logistic regression, as shown by Chamberlain (1980) in the case of having a binary response variable. The principle applied here is that when using logistic regression with conditional likelihood and having more than one observation per object, the variables that do not change values are not used in the estimation. Unfortunately this also means that a variable like gender will be omitted from the estimation. The latter problem can be solved by either splitting up the analysis in two parts according to gender or by integrating gender effects as interaction effects, which is the method adopted in this paper. As the scale on which job satisfaction is measured in the present analysis consists of four ordered categories with verbal ratings, ordinal comparability can be assumed and the response variable can be recoded to a binary variable without violating any assumptions. Conditional likelihood estimation is performed using the panel 1995–2000. Supplementary ordinary regressions are completed using the cross-sectional data from 2000. Predicted probabilities are generated from the cross-sectional data. Initially, correlation analysis using Kendall Tau was performed on all explanatory variables. The correlation coef? cient was below 0. 0 except between age and tenure, and between education in years and wage. Tenure is used as a substitute for age, as the sign of the correlation between age and job satisfaction also may depend on age (Clark et al. , 1998). Educational levels were dichotomized and tested in the model as with the gender interaction terms. The full model with variables giv en in Table 1 and Appendix A becomes:  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Age in years Mean Years of school Mean Std. deviation Professions Vocational training Marital status Cohabiting 39. 7 Public 13. 3 2. 57 34. 2 79. 3 35. 7 Private 995 12. 1 2. 19 53. 5  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 74. 7 80. 8 54. 4 12. 5 2. 36 40. 9 Private 2000 81. 9 33. 7 13. 7 2. 53 44. 7 Public Net month pay Mean, DKK. Std. deviation Tenure Mean Std. deviation Gender Male Female 64. 9 35. 1 7. 0 7. 52 10,891 4,909 Private Table 1. Summary of key demographic and economic variables in balanced panel (N = 3,412) 1995 36. 6 63. 4 8. 8 8. 10 9,932 4,102 Public 65. 0 35. 0 9. 0 8. 79 13,600 4,667 Private 2000 34. 5 65. 0 11. 4 9. 64 12,123 3,541 Public 8 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 9 JSij = ? i + ? marriedij + ? 2 Childrenij + ? 3High schoolij + ? 4Short further educationij u + ? 5 Tenureij + ? 6 Leaderij + ? 7 unemployment rateij + ? 8 Noiseij + ? 9 Physical strainij + ? 10 Influenceij + ? 11High demand-low controlij + ? 12 Job securityij + ? 13 Informationij + ? 14 Role conflict ij + ? 15Social sup port ij + ? 16 Conflict at workij + ? 17 Flexible hoursij + ? 18 Logpay ij + ? 19 Job futurei + ? 20 Recognition leaderi + ? ij . The i subscript refers to different persons and j refers to different measurements for person i, Job satisfaction (JS) is the dependent variable, a the constant, b is the vector of the coef? ients of the explanatory variables, and eij is a random error term. Questionnaire answers on job future opportunities and recognition from leaders are only available for the 2000 cross-section. The estimation method is maximum likelihood and the statistical computer programs used were SAS 8. 2 and STATA 9. 0, the logit procedure and the clogit procedure. Results are presented as factor changes in odds, expressing the increase in the odds of being i n the group having a high degree of job satisfaction, for a one point, or level, increase in the explanatory variable. 4. Results In this section we present the empirical results based on four sets of analyses. (1) Preliminary regression analyses on gender differences. (2) Main results: Estimating the probability of the outcomes being highly satis? ed with the job and being dissatis? ed with the job using conditional likelihood estimation. (3) An ordinary logistic regression analysis using only data from 2000 with addition of recognition from leaders and future job opportunities to the model. This model is used for predicting the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction when rewards are optimized and work environment factors are at unfavourable levels. 4) A fourth and last analysis has the purpose of validation of the question on job satisfaction and consists of a regression where job satisfaction as response variable is substituted by a question on the degree of motivation and engagement in one’s work. 4. 1 Preliminary analyses on gender differences Initially, tests for gender interaction effects are performed. For private-sector employees, social support shows both a signi? cant gender effect and a general effect on job satisfaction. For public-sector employees job security indicates a signi? ant gender effect and a general effect. In both cases being a woman increases the impact on the level of job satisfaction. The gender interaction effects are veri? ed when running separate regressions on genders still using the division on sectors. The results can be seen in Appendix B. Due to the loss of observations when using ? xed effects regressions these regressions are run on only the 2000 cross-section using ordinary logistic regression on the outcome being highly satis? ed. A few results turn out to be gender speci? : only for publicly employed men, having no education above high school level lowers the probability of a high level of job satisfaction and having a leading position increases the probability of high job satisfaction signi? cantly. For publicly employed wo men only, the unemployment rate is signi? cantly and inversely related to the level of job satisfaction. Job security is signi? cant as suggested by the found interaction effects. For privately employed men and women, gender-speci? c effects are in? uence that increases the  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 0 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal probability of high job satisfaction for men, job security that increases the likelihood of job satisfaction for women, and being exposed to aggression at the work place, which is only signi? cant for women. Moreover, the coef? cient of social support is larger for women than for men corresponding to the results of the gender analysis. In regard to wages, the effect is large and positive for both privately employed men and privately employed women but nonsigni? cant for both genders within the public sector. As discussed in the statistical analysis section multicollinarity existed between education in years and wage. Therefore educational levels are entered as separate variables to the model. Ultimately, only having no further education beyond high school and having a short further education were statistically signi? cant (p 0. 05) and these levels are therefore kept in the model. 4. 2 Results using conditional likelihood on the combined panel of data from 1995 and 2000 The gender interaction effects found and the two variables representing educational level are now entered in the ? al model. The results are shown in Table 2. The left section of the table shows the results when estimating the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction and the right section of the table shows the results when estimating the probability of having a low level of job satisfaction, the latter in order to test for a duality in the impacts on job satisfaction as discussed in Section 2. Looking ? rs t at the results for the economic and demographic measures, the odds of being in the high job satisfaction category are reduced with one-? th for every additional child for private employees, although the latter effect is only borderline signi? cant (p = 0. 077). This result is matched in the public sector, in the way that the odds of having a low level of job satisfaction triple for an additional child. For privatesector employees, having no more than a high school education, opposed to having an educational level above high school, nearly triples the odds of being in the high job satisfaction category and also reduces the odds of being in the low job satisfaction category, although the latter effect is only borderline signi? ant (p = 0. 063). Having a medium length or short further education nearly halves the odds of being highly satis? ed with one’s job. Educational level does not show any effects of signi? cance for public-sector employees. High tenure raises the odds of being in the low job satisfaction category for public-sector employees, a result not matched elsewhere. Within both sectors, the level of job satisfaction seems to be related to the size of the unemployment rate, and the scope of this relation is similar for private and public employees. The sizes of the odds indicate an 8. 3 per cent decrease in the odds of being in the high satisfaction category per per cent increase in the unemployment rate for private-sector employees and a 9 per cent decrease in the odds of being in the high satisfaction category per per cent increase in the unemployment rate for public-sector employees. In regard to occupational health factors, the public and the private sector have four factors in common: role con? cts nearly halves the odds of being in the high satisfaction category in both sectors, odd work positions decrease the odds of being in the high satisfaction category for private employees by one-third, and for public employees by nearly one-half. Increasing the level of information that concerns the work place raises the odds of being highly satis? ed by 71 per cent for privately employed and by 91 per cent for publicly employed workers. For each increase in the level of social support, the odds of being highly satis? ed increase b y 58 per cent and 31 per cent, respectively. For public employees, increasing the level of in? ence increases the odds of being highly satis? ed with the job by 71 per cent, and having foreseeable job security above 12 months nearly doubles the odds of being in the high job satisfaction category. For private-sector  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 1. 061 0. 811(*) 2. 881* 0. 558* 1. 009 1. 349 0. 917* 0. 525* 0. 681* 1. 045 0. 965 1. 532 1. 709* 0. 537* 1. 576* 0. 973 1. 246* 1. 698(*) 0. 755* — 0. 674–1. 672 0. 643–1. 023 1. 342–6. 186 0. 359–0. 868 0. 978–1. 040 0. 707–2. 573 0. 876–0. 960 0. 303–0. 907 0. 514–0. 903 0. 849–1. 292 0. 446–2. 091 0. 904–2. 596 1. 380–2. 116 0. 398–0. 23 1. 257–1. 978 0. 555–1. 705 1. 103–1. 409 0. 990–2. 913 0. 575–0. 992 — CI 1. 310 1. 047 0. 497 0. 796 0. 974 0. 460 0. 910* 0. 739 0. 579* 1. 710* 0. 595 2. 042(*) 1. 906* 0. 525* 1. 309* 0. 936 1. 035 1. 386 — 0. 150* OR ? xed 0. 639–2. 682 0. 755–1. 452 0. 153–1. 618 0. 431–1. 472 0. 932–1. 019 0. 150–1. 417 0. 858–0. 965 0. 346–1. 576 0. 358–0. 935 1. 142–2. 559 0. 058–6. 084 0. 891–4. 680 1. 355–2. 681 0. 337–0. 817 1. 092–1. 569 0. 552–1. 589 0. 850–1. 260 0. 463–4. 154 — 0. 027–0. 825 CI Public (Reg. 2) 1. 379 0. 803 0. 062(*) 0. 414 1. 046 3. 378 1. 006 3. 843* 1. 238 1. 943* 4. 482* 3. 012* 2. 112* 2. 247(*) 1. 496* . 825 0. 913 1. 176 — — OR ? xed 0. 360–5. 274 0. 394–1. 639 0. 003–1. 157 0. 085–2. 022 0. 951–1. 150 0. 320–35. 729 0. 906–1. 116 1. 238–11. 926 0. 653–2. 347 1. 176–3. 212 1. 425–14. 091 1. 016–8. 933 1. 222–3. 650 0. 949à ¢â‚¬â€œ5. 320 1. 059–2. 114 0. 679–4. 902 0. 641–1. 300 0. 275–5. 038 — — CI Private (Reg. 3) b 0. 744 3. 396* 11. 731 2. 327 1. 195* 0. 061 1. 017 0. 358 1. 250 3. 186(*) 0. 727 0. 939 2. 052(*) 1. 152 1. 586(*) 4. 557(*) 0. 805 1. 766 — — OR ? xed 0. 140–3. 948 1. 049–10. 993 0. 469–293. 833 0. 383–14. 120 1. 025–1. 395 0. 0 0. 861–1. 202 0. 046–2. 809 0. 573–2. 724 0. 975–10. 409 0. 071–7. 497 0. 127–6. 940 0. 96–4. 699 0. 348–3. 819 0. 936–2. 689 0. 962–21. 598 0. 372–1. 740 0. 160–19. 521 — — CI Public (Reg. 4) Low job satisfactionc Dichotomous variables. Gender interaction effects: Male = 1. c Scales are reversed for in? uence, job security, information, social support, and ? exible hours when estimating job dissatisfaction. CI: 95% con? dence interval. Signi? cance levels:(*) 0. 05 p 0. 1 0, * 0. 0000 p 0. 05. Number of observations: Reg. 1 = 1,200, Reg. 2 = 650, Reg. 3 = 282, Reg. 4 = 128. -log (Likelihood): Reg. 1 = 317. 1, Reg. 2 = 172. 6, Reg. 3 = 50. 8, Reg. 4 = 27. 3. Pseudo R2s: Reg. 1 = 0. 24, Reg. 2 = 0. 3, Reg. 3 = 0. 48, and Reg. 4 = 0. 38. a Cohabitinga Number of children High school or lessa Short further education Job tenure in years Leader statusa Unemployment rate 1. Noisea 2. Odd work positions 3. In? uence 4. Low control–high demand 5. Job security 1 yeara 6. Information 7. Role con? ictsa 8. Social support 9. Exposed to aggressiona 10. Flexible hours Monthly pay. Ln kr Male social supportb Male job securityb OR ? xed Private (Reg. 1) High job satisfaction Table 2. Results from conditional logistic regression, when estimating the probability of being highly satis? ed with one’s job and being dissatis? ed with one’s job. Divided on private-sector and public-sector employees Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 11  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 12 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal employees, three additional factors have signi? cant impacts on the probability of being highly satis? ed with one’s job: noise halves the odds of having the highest level of job satisfaction; more ? exible working hours increase the odds of being highly satis? ed by 25 per cent; and ? nally the odds of log pay suggest that when log pay is increased by one unit the odds of being in the high satisfaction category increase by nearly 70 per cent. The effect is borderline signi? cant (p = 0. 054). Comparing the results from the conditional likelihood estimation with the results from the ordinary logistic regression analyses (as shown in Appendix B), a few discrepancies emerge: for publicly employed men having no more than a high school education lowers the probability of a high level of job satisfaction and having a leading position raises the probability of a high level of job satisfaction using ordinary regression analysis only. In? uence raises the probability of high job satisfaction signi? cantly for privately employed men but not when using ? ed effects analyses. For public employees, being exposed to aggression at the work place lowers the probability of high job satisfaction when using ordinary logistic regression analysis and the corresponding result from the ? xed effects regression is an increase in the probability of dissatisfaction when being exposed to con? icts. For private employees odd work positions only show an effect in the ? xed effects analysis. Looking at the results of predicting being dissatis? ed with one’s job several factors impact on the probability of both having a high degree of job satisfaction and being dissatis? d with the job. This is the case in the private sector for noise, information, role con? icts, and social support, and in the public sector for in? uence, information, and social support. On the other hand, being exposed to violence, threats of violence or teasing, or having a job with low control in combination with high demands only has an impact on the probability of being dissatis? ed with the job. 4. 3 Hazards and the effects of rewards on the likelihood of being highly satis? ed with the job Following the results from the regressions presented in the previous sections, pay is only a signi? ant predictor of having a high level of job satisfaction in the private sector, and did not seem to have any impact on the probability of being dissatis? ed. Withi n both labour economic studies and work psychology, future opportunities and recognition are also considered as rewards of work. As additional information is available on future opportunities and recognition in data from 2000, the following analysis incorporates all three types of rewards. In addition, people were asked in 1995 what they considered to be the most important aspect of their work. Of the three possible answers, 11. 2 per cent answered that the pay was good (6. 0 per cent in the public sector and 14. 8 per cent in the private sector), 58. 0 per cent answered that the work interested them (65. 6 per cent in the public sector and 52. 7 per cent in the private sector), and 30. 8 per cent answered that they got along well with colleagues (28. 4 per cent in the public sector and 32. 4 per cent in the private sector). The differences among public and private employees with regard to pay support the evidence from our analyses. However the results also suggest that alternative rewards may be considered although the capability of these rewards to compensate for hazards in the work environment is more uncertain. The second question we have sought to investigate is whether employees exposed to hazards at work for which they receive above average rewards, when comparing with employees in non-hazardous work with average rewards, report the same level of job satisfaction. This was achieved by means of calculations of predicted probabilities. The factors tested were signi? ant predictors of both having a high level of job satisfaction and being dissatis? ed with the  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 13 job. Initially, a regression on the 2000 cohort integrating recognition from leaders and future possibilities in the model was performed. The results from this regression are shown in Appendix C. The hazards analysed for private- sector employees are high noise, low levels of information and social support, and role con? icts. For the public sector, low levels of information, in? ence, and social support are chosen. The results from varying the levels of these variables from their best, to their worst case, and at the same time maximizing the three types of rewards are shown in Table 3. The values in column 2 express the probability of being highly satis? ed with the job when each of the six chosen work environment factors are in their most positive position and all other variables are held constant at the mean. Column 3 shows the probability of being highly satis? ed with the job when each of the six hazards is at the most negative level. Columns 4, 5 and 6 give the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction when the individual factors are at the worst case, single rewards are at their best, and all other variables are at their mean. Having the lowest level of information gives the lowest probability of having a high degree of job satisfaction observed for private-sector employees (0. 62). For public-sector employees the likelihood of being highly satis? ed with the job when information is at the lowest level is 0. 56. This is the case when all other variables are held at an average level. Moreover, the probability of being highly satis? ed with one’s job never exceeds 0. 75 as long as information is low, which is below both 0. 81 and 0. 79, the average probabilities of being highly satis? ed with the job within the public and the private sector. Low in? uence predicts the lowest probability of a high level of job satisfaction for publicsector employees, which is 0. 56. In this case it is not possible to reach the same level of job satisfaction when having the lowest possible level of in? uence, as compared with those experiencing a high level of in? uence even if receiving maximum rewards. The same is evident for social support for employees in both sectors. In contrast, the impacts of high noise or experiencing role con? icts on the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction are, however, neutralized by either the highest level of leader recognition or future opportunities, or a high wage, being among the best-paid 2 per cent in the sample. 4. 4 Hazards and the effects of rewards on the likelihood of being highly motivated in the job The analysis made in Section 4. 3 is repeated now predicting the probability of having the highest level of motivation when the levels of in? ence, social support, and information are at their worst, individual rewards are at their best, and all other variables are at their mean. The results of this regression are shown in Appendix D. Table 4 is analogous with Table 3. The results in Table 4 are consistent with the results in Table 3, except that receiving the highest level of leader recognition now seems to compensate private ly employed for a low level of social support. 5. Discussion The way work environmental and socio-economic factors related to job satisfaction was not only in terms of either increasing job satisfaction or not, i. e. eing motivational factors or not. Thus in line with Herzberg et al. ’s (1959) theory some job factors also function as maintenance factors that are only being capable of making employees dissatis? ed with the job. In addition to this, some factors only had the impact of lowering the likelihood of being highly satis? ed with the job. These could be characterized as inconvenience factors with an unsettling effect on the motivation factors.  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 0. 713 0. 618 0. 727 0. 736 0. 563 0. 754 0. 598 . 798 0. 825 0. 881 0. 812 P(High JS) when X at its worst and the rest of the factors at their means 0. 838 0. 879 0. 829 0. 520 0. 72 1 0. 556 0. 804 0. 727 0. 814 0. 821 P(High JS) when Pay is at maximum, X at its worst, and the rest of the factors at the means 0. 701 0. 848 0. 730 0. 817 0. 743 0. 827 0. 834 P(High JS) when Leader Recognition high, X at its worst, and the rest at the means 0. 717 0. 858 0. 746 0. 815 0. 741 0. 825 0. 832 P(High JS) when Future Opportunities are high, X at its worst, and the rest at their means Probability of high Job Satisfaction for private employees when all variables at their mean: 0. 901. Probability of high Job Satisfaction for public employees when all variables at their mean: 0. 8052. Leader recognition is at its highest when the employee has answered ‘To a very high degree’ when asked: ‘Is your work acknowledged and appreciated by the management? ’ and future opportunities are maximized when the employee has answered ‘To a very high degree’ when asked: ‘Are the future prospects of your job good? ’. Private sector Noise Information Social support Role con? ict Public sector Information Social support In? uence P(High JS) when X is optimal and the rest of the factors at heir means Table 3. Probability of a high level of Job Satisfaction (JS) for varying levels of dissatisfaction factors and rewards (X) 14 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal 0. 268 0. 320 0. 338 0. 408 0. 161 0. 396 0. 467 P(High M) when X at its worst and the rest of the factors at their means 0. 474 0. 532 0. 507 0. 380 0. 453 0. 187 0. 299 0. 353 P(High M) when Pay is at maximum, X at its worst, and the rest of the factors at the means 0. 443 0. 518 0. 230 0. 414 0. 476 P(High M) when Leader Recognition high, X at its worst, and the rest at the means 0. 448 0. 523 0. 233 0. 356 0. 415 P(High M) hen Future Opportunities are high, X at its worst, and the rest at their means Notes: Motivation is at its highest when the employee has answered ‘Yes, indeed’ when asked: ‘Do you feel motivated and engaged in your work? â€⠄¢; 39. 2% of the private employees and 46. 3% of the public employees answer ‘Yes, indeed’. Private sector Information Social support Public sector Information Social support In? uence P(High M) when X is optimal and the rest of the factors at their means Table 4. Probability of a high level of motivation (M) for varying levels of dissatisfaction factors and rewards (X) Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 15  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 16 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal While adding to the credibility of results, many respondents unfortunately are lost when using conditional likelihood estimation as those with none changing characteristics are dropped from the analysis. When comparing the results of the ordinary regression analyses with the results using conditional likelihood estimation it did not seem that controlling for ? xed effects alters results in regard to the subjective measures used. A possible explanation is that most answers are put as frequencies of exposure during working hours leaving less room for misconceptions of the questions. About two-thirds of the results on work environment variables were common for public- and private-sector employees, with effects of just about the same size. Common factors were odd work positions and role con? ict, both factors lowering the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction, and information on decisions that concerns the work place and social support, of which higher levels predicted being highly satis? d with the job and lower levels predicted job dissatisfaction. Factors being speci? c for the private sector were noise and a combination of low control and high demands, whereas exposure to aggression at the work place and level of in? uence only seemed to have an effect on public employees. Being exposed to violence, threats of violence or teasing, and having a job with low control in combination with high de mands are examples of maintenance factors as the extent of their impact is con? ned to negative outcomes. In accordance with our results, public employees have been shown to have an increased risk of experiencing con? icts, teasing, or threats of violence at work (see Hoegh, 2005) whereas jobs with low control and high demands are typically found on industrial work sites within the private sector. In testing the ameliorative capability of rewards to compensate for the negative effects on job satisfaction deriving from exposure to (primarily psychosocial) hazards in the work environment, our results indicated only a limited effect for this type of compensating differential. In particular, rewards could not neutralize the effects on job satisfaction when employees have low levels of information on decisions that concerns the work place, social support, or, as a result for public employees only, in? uence. Most previous studies searching for evidence of compensating wage differentials for work environment hazards have been concerned with observable occupational health hazards (see Rosen, 1986), an exception being for very stressful work (French and Dunlap, 1998). The results were duplicated and even more pronounced when the analysis was repeated substituting job satisfaction with motivation. Where the same fraction of public employees and private employees reported being highly satis? ed with the job, there was a discrepancy among the two sectors when comparing the fraction of employees reporting to be highly motivated. Thirty-nine per cent of the private employees and 46 per cent of the public employees reported to be the highly motivated. These results also correspond to the result that more public than private employees report that the most important aspect of their work was that the work interested them (66 per cent versus 53 per cent). The differences are small but the results support the theory that public employees should have higher intrinsic motivation (Benabou and Tirole, 2006). As wages did not show any signi? cant impact on the level of job satisfaction for public employees and neither had any signi? cant compensating value in regard to certain hazards at the job, the results also point to that publicly employed workers are less motivated by high pay and place a higher value on the intrinsic rewards as also seen in Karl and Sutton (1998) and Houston (2000). Very low probabilities of having a high level of job satisfaction (0. 56) and being highly motivated at the job (0. 16) were evident for public employees with the lowest level of in? uence. This clearly suggests that lack of in? uence can demotivate public employees and points to that  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 17 intrinsic motivation can be undermined if people feel controlled, and have little autonomy and freedom in performing work tasks (Deci and Ryan, 1985). Moreover, in the long run, lack of autonomy can pose a threat to value congruence between the employees and the organization, as suggested by Ren (2010). In regard to the results concerning gender differences, job security showed a general positive effect on job satisfaction as well as a gender-speci? c effect for employees in the public sector, suggesting women pursue job security more than men. For private employees, any effect of job insecurity would be dissatisfaction with the job and the size of the effect was just about the same for the two genders. In a study by D’Addio et al. (2003), job security was found to have the same effect for men and women after adjusting for ? xed effects. Without adjusting for ? xed effects, men seemingly valued job security the most. In the study by Clark et al. (1998), they ? nd that the extent to which women or men pursue job security varies among countries and that the differences are relatively small. These other studies have split the analyses on gender, which complicates comparison, and the differing time span of years over which the observations are made most ikely has an effect too. Clark et al. (1998) also ? nd that women report having good relations at work more often than men. Whereas Sloane and Williams (2000) ? nd that good interpersonal relations are most important for women. This is consistent with our ? nding that among private employees, women value social support more than men. The impact on job satisfaction from wages may also re? ect an effect of satisfaction with the job that derives from increased total expenditure opportunities as the question on job satisfaction in our study is one that re? cts overall job satisfaction. The results may also be dependent on the given wage structure as both wages and wages dispersion are lower within the public sector than within the private sector in Denmark at the time (Wadensjo, 1996). Finally, the impact on job satisfaction from the unemployment rate is large. D’Addio et al. (2003) found a similar negative correlation between job satisfaction and the rate of unemployment. In both the study by D’Addio et al. (2003) and our study, this relation is only signi? cant after controlling for ? xed effects. That is, apart from the result when making a separate analysis on gender and sector. It is noteworthy that the unemployment rate has these clear derived effects on the subjective feelings towards the job. According to the studies by Akerlof et al. (1988), a low unemployment rate makes it possible for unsatis? ed employees to change to jobs with more desired characteristics. Appendix A: List of work environment variables 1. Noise: Two levels according to answer to the below: 3/4 or more of the work day being exposed to noise that high that one must raise the voice to be able to speak with others. . Odd work positions: A score with a one point increase when respondents have marked a positive answer to the following questions: 3/4 or more of the working hours the work entails work with: 1. The back heavily bended forward with no support for hands or arms. 2. The body twisted or bended in the same way several times an hour. 3. The hands lifted to shoulder height or higher. 4. The neck he avily bended forward. 5. Squatting or kneeling.  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 18 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal 3. In? uence: Four levels; Can you plan your own work? 4. Low control–high strain: In? uence: Four levels; Can you plan your own work? Job variation: Four levels; Is your job varied? Time pressure: Recoded into two levels; 1995: Does your work entail that you have to work under time pressure in order to get certain pieces of work done? 2000: Is it necessary to work very fast? Mental demands: Does your work demand all your attention and concentration? 5. Job security: Two levels according to: (1995): Certain or pretty sure of keeping the job the next 12 months. (2000): The present job is not a ? xed-term appointment with less than 12 months left. . Information: Four levels; Are you informed about decisions that concern your work place? 7. Unclearness of role and con? icting demands: Two levels according to the consent or not of either of two statements: It is clear what my responsibility. I experience con? icting demands in my work. 8. Social support: (four levels — No support, always support from colleagues but not always from superiors, always support from superiors but not always from colleagues, always support from colleagues and superiors) 1995: Do you receive help and encouragement from your superior/colleagues? 000: How often do you receive help and support from superior or colleagues? 9. Con? icts, teasing, unwanted sexual attention, threats, or violence (two levels): 1995: Are you exposed to any form of unpleasant teasing, unwanted sexual attention, threats of violence, or violence at your work place? (Not reporting any incidents constitutes a ‘no’) 2000: Have you been exposed to unpleasant teasing, unwanted sexual attention, threats of violence, or physical violence at your work place within the last 12 months? (Not reporting any incidents constitutes a ‘no’) 10. Flexibility of work schedule: Four levels according to the time space within a respondent can vary the daily working schedule without giving further notice. Can you change the placing of your working hours from day to day without making prearrangements, e. g. meet at work late or leave work early? 11. Recognition: Four levels: Is your work acknowledged and appreciated by the management? 12. Future opportunities: Four levels: Are the future prospects of your work good?  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 19 Appendix B: Estimating high job satisfaction on the 2000 cross-sectional data. Divided on gender Men Private (Reg. 1) Women Public (Reg. 2) Private (Reg. 3) Public (Reg. 4) Coef. Cohabitinga Number of children High school or lessa Short further education Job tenure in years Leader statusa Unemployment rate 1. Noisea 2. Odd work positions 3. In? uence 4. Low control–high demand 5. Job security 1 yeara 6. Information 7. Role con? ictsa 8. Social support 9. Exposed to aggressiona 10. Flexible hours Monthly pay. Ln kr Standard error Coef. Standard error Coef. Standard error Coef. Standard error 0. 258 -0. 067 0. 237 0. 437* 0. 010 0. 181 -0. 011 -0. 587* -0. 176 0. 244* -0. 658 0. 087 0. 475* -0. 626* 0. 371* -0. 294 0. 175* 0. 639* 0. 1896 0. 0728 0. 1999 0. 1916 0. 0086 0. 2451 0. 0295 0. 2142 0. 1062 0. 0906 0. 4282 0. 3488 0. 0926 0. 1441 0. 0678 0. 2811 0. 0528 0. 2705 0. 1700 -0. 078 -0. 638* 0. 060 -0. 004 0. 743* 0. 010 0. 104 -0. 493* 0. 395* -0. 919 -0. 292 0. 759* -0. 5 78* 0. 314* -0. 732* 0. 143 0. 066 0. 2248 0. 0860 0. 2592 0. 1890 0. 0093 0. 3642 0. 0223 0. 2853 0. 1827 0. 1190 0. 6509 0. 2948 0. 1206 0. 1632 0. 0742 0. 1916 0. 0598 0. 2794 0. 307 -0. 026 0. 286 -0. 481* 0. 006 0. 348 0. 021 -0. 529(*) -0. 26 0. 121 -0. 991 0. 469* 0. 607* -0. 435* 0. 459 -0. 348* 0. 171* 0. 611* 0. 2327 0. 1004 0. 2709 0. 2177 0. 0109 0. 5299 0. 0369 0. 2808 0. 1476 0. 1252 0. 5711 0. 3909 0. 1390 0. 2099 0. 0856 0. 2922 0. 0685 0. 2802 0. 167 -0. 015 -0. 117 -0. 1656 0. 010 -0. 267 -0. 029* -0. 044 -0. 380* 0. 247* -0. 003 0. 369* 0. 623* -0. 542* 0. 362* -0. 335* 0. 104* -0. 092 0. 1477 0. 0612 0. 1804 0. 1349 0. 0070 0. 2914 0. 0139 0. 1963 0. 1126 0. 0880 0. 5338 0. 1888 0. 0896 0. 1212 0. 0508 0. 1397 0. 0471 0. 2195 a Dichotomous variables. CI: 95% con? dence interval. Signi? cance levels: (*) 0. 05 p 0. 10, * 0. 000 p 0. 05. Number of observations: Reg. 1 = 1,356, Reg. 2 = 959, Reg. 3 = 728, Reg. 4 = 1,754. -log (Likelihood): Reg. 1 = 639. 3, Reg. 2 = 483. 2, Reg. 3 = 363. 1, Reg. 4 = 907. 1. Pseudo R2s: Reg. 1 = 0. 17, Reg. 2 = 0. 18, Reg. 3 = 0. 17, and Reg. 4 = 0. 13. Appendix C: Estimating high job satisfaction on the 2000 cross-sectional data (Reg. 1) (Reg. 2) Private (N = 2,057) Public (N = 1,296) OR Cohabitinga Number of children High school or lessa Short further education Job tenure in years Leader statusa Unemployment rate 1. Noisea 2. Odd work positions 3. In? uence 4. Low control–high strain . Job security 1 yeara 6. Information P|z| CI lower CI higher OR P|z| CI lower CI higher 1. 358 0. 934 1. 361 0. 653 1. 016 1. 252 1. 006 0. 628 0. 845 1. 121 0. 464 1. 186 1. 430 0. 042 0. 263 0. 064 0. 004 0. 024 0. 323 0. 796 0. 008 0. 058 0. 139 0. 033 0. 535 0. 000 1. 011 0. 829 0. 982 0. 488 1. 002 0. 802 How to cite Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards:, Essay examples